Skip to main content
NCBI home page
Neuroscience Bulletin logoLink to Neuroscience Bulletin
. 2013 Jan 8;29(1):103–110. doi: 10.1007/s12264-012-1295-6

Inattentiveness in attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder

Ariane Sroubek 1, Mary Kelly 2, Xiaobo Li 3,4,5,6,✉
PMCID: PMC4440572  NIHMSID: NIHMS676529  PMID: 23299717

Abstract

Attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) is a neurodevelopmental disorder with a long-term impact on functioning, productivity and quality of life of patients. This impact is largely due to the symptoms of inattentiveness. However, despite its impairing role in the lives of ADHD patients, inattentiveness has been studied relatively less frequently than have symptoms of impulsivity/hyperactivity and problems with executive function. This review therefore seeks to integrate the neuropsychological theories and current findings in the research fields of neuropsychology, neurophysiology, and neuroimaging, in an attempt to gain a more complete understanding of the role that inattentiveness plays in ADHD, as well as to suggest directions for future studies. The need for a more comprehensive understanding of inattentiveness and ADHD, which integrates findings from each of the three disciplines mentioned above, is emphasized.

Keywords: attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder, inattentiveness, brain pathways, neuropathology

References

  • [1].Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders. Washington, DC: American Psychiatric Association, 1994.
  • [2].Pennington B. The Development of Psychopathology — Nature and nurture. New York: Guilford Press; 2005. Disorders of Action Regulation. [Google Scholar]
  • [3].Safren S.A., Sprich S.E., Cooper-Vince C., Knouse L.E., Lerner J.A. Life impairments in adults with medication-treated ADHD. J Atten Disord. 2010;13:524–531. doi: 10.1177/1087054709332460. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • [4].Barkley R.A., Fischer M., Smallish L., Fletcher K. The persistence of attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder into young adulthood as a function of reporting source and definition of disorder. J Abnorm Psychol. 2002;111:279–289. doi: 10.1037/0021-843X.111.2.279. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • [5].Hodgkins P, Montejano L, Sasane R, Huse D. Cost of illness and comorbidities in adults diagnosed with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder: a retrospective analysis. Prim Care Companion CNS Disord 2011, 13. doi: 10.4088/PCC.10m01030. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed]
  • [6].Bush G. Attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder and attention networks. Neuropsychopharmacology. 2010;35:278–300. doi: 10.1038/npp.2009.120. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • [7].Sergeant J. The cognitive-energetic model: an empirical approach to attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder. Neurosci Biobehav Rev. 2000;24:7–12. doi: 10.1016/S0149-7634(99)00060-3. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • [8].Sanders A.F. Towards a model of stress and human performance. Acta Psychol (Amst) 1983;53:61–97. doi: 10.1016/0001-6918(83)90016-1. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • [9].Sergeant J.A. Modeling attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder: a critical appraisal of the cognitive-energetic model. Biol Psychiatry. 2005;57:1248–1255. doi: 10.1016/j.biopsych.2004.09.010. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • [10].Friedman-Hill S.R., Wagman M.R., Gex S.E., Pine D.S., Leibenluft E., Ungerleider L.G. What does distractibility in ADHD reveal about mechanisms for top-down attentional control? Cognition. 2010;115:93–103. doi: 10.1016/j.cognition.2009.11.013. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • [11].Berger A., Posner M.I. Pathologies of brain attentional networks. Neurosci Biobehav Rev. 2000;24:3–5. doi: 10.1016/S0149-7634(99)00046-9. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • [12].Posner M.I., Petersen S.E. The attention system of the human brain. Annu Rev Neurosci. 1990;13:25–42. doi: 10.1146/annurev.ne.13.030190.000325. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • [13].Huang-Pollock C.L., Nigg J.T. Searching for the attention deficit in attention deficit hyperactivity disorder: the case of visuospatial orienting. Clin Psychol Rev. 2003;23:801–830. doi: 10.1016/S0272-7358(03)00073-4. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • [14].Mullane J.C., Corkum P.V., Klein R.M., McLaughlin E.N., Lawrence M.A. Alerting, orienting, and executive attention in children with ADHD. J Atten Disord. 2011;15:310–320. doi: 10.1177/1087054710366384. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • [15].Kaufmann L., Zieren N., Zotter S., Karall D., Scholl-Burgi S., Haberlandt E., et al. Predictive validity of attentional functions in differentiating children with and without ADHD: a componential analysis. Dev Med Child Neurol. 2010;52:371–378. doi: 10.1111/j.1469-8749.2009.03560.x. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • [16].Chess A.C., Raymond B.E., Gardner-Morse I.G., Stefani M.R., Green J.T. Set shifting in a rodent model of attention-deficit/ hyperactivity disorder. Behav Neurosci. 2011;125:372–382. doi: 10.1037/a0023571. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • [17].Kempton S., Vance A., Maruff P., Luk E., Costin J., Pantelis C. Executive function and attention deficit hyperactivity disorder: stimulant medication and better executive function performance in children. Psychol Med. 1999;29:527–538. doi: 10.1017/S0033291799008338. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • [18].Rohlf H., Jucksch V., Gawrilow C., Huss M., Hein J., Lehmkuhl U., et al. Set shifting and working memory in adults with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. J Neural Transm. 2012;119:95–106. doi: 10.1007/s00702-011-0660-3. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • [19].Alloway T.P., Gathercole S.E., Holmes J., Place M., Elliott J.G., Hilton K. The diagnostic utility of behavioral checklists in identifying children with ADHD and children with working memory deficits. Child Psychiatry Hum Dev. 2009;40:353–366. doi: 10.1007/s10578-009-0131-3. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • [20].Kuntsi J., Klein C. Intraindividual variability in ADHD and its implications for research of causal links. Curr Top Behav Neurosci. 2012;9:67–91. doi: 10.1007/7854_2011_145. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • [21].Castellanos F.X., Tannock R. Neuroscience of attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder: the search for endophenotypes. Nat Rev Neurosci. 2002;3:617–628. doi: 10.1038/nrn896. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • [22].Rapport M.D., Kofler M.J., Alderson R.M., Timko T.M., Jr, Dupaul G.J. Variability of attention processes in ADHD: observations from the classroom. J Atten Disord. 2009;12:563–573. doi: 10.1177/1087054708322990. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • [23].Rommelse N.N., Altink M.E., Oosterlaan J., Beem L., Buschgens C.J., Buitelaar J., et al. Speed, variability, and timing of motor output in ADHD: which measures are useful for endophenotypic research? Behav Genet. 2008;38:121–132. doi: 10.1007/s10519-007-9186-8. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • [24].Fischer M., Barkley R.A., Smallish L., Fletcher K. Executive functioning in hyperactive children as young adults: attention, inhibition, response perseveration, and the impact of comorbidity. Dev Neuropsychol. 2005;27:107–133. doi: 10.1207/s15326942dn2701_5. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • [25].Barkley R.A., Edwards G., Laneri M., Fletcher K., Metevia L. Executive functioning, temporal discounting, and sense of time in adolescents with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder ADHD) and oppositional defiant disorder (ODD) J Abnorm Child Psychol. 2001;29:541–556. doi: 10.1023/A:1012233310098. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • [26].Holmes J., Gathercole S.E., Place M., Alloway T.P., Elliot J.G., Hilton K.A. The diagnostic utility of executive function assessments in the identification of ADHD in children. Child Adolesc Ment Health. 2010;15:37–43. doi: 10.1111/j.1475-3588.2009.00536.x. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • [27].Goulden L.G., Silver C.H. Concordance of the children’s executive functions scale with established tests and parent rating scales. J Psychoeduc Assess. 2009;27:439–451. doi: 10.1177/0734282909335574. [DOI] [Google Scholar]
  • [28].Wolf R.C., Plichta M.M., Sambataro F., Fallgatter A.J., Jacob C., Lesch K.P., et al. Regional brain activation changes and abnormal functional connectivity of the ventrolateral prefrontal cortex during working memory processing in adults with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. Hum Brain Mapp. 2009;30:2252–2266. doi: 10.1002/hbm.20665. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • [29].Pingault J.B., Tremblay R.E., Vitaro F., Carbonneau R., Genolini C., Falissard B., et al. Childhood trajectories of inattention and hyperactivity and prediction of educational attainment in early adulthood: a 16-year longitudinal population-based study. Am J Psychiatry. 2011;168:1164–1170. doi: 10.1176/appi.ajp.2011.10121732. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • [30].Huang-Pollock C.L., Karalunas S.L. Working memory demands impair skill acquisition in children with ADHD. J Abnorm Psychol. 2010;119:174–185. doi: 10.1037/a0017862. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • [31].Safren S.A., Sprich S.E., Cooper-Vince C., Knouse L.E., Lerner J.A. Life impairments in adults with medication-treated ADHD. J Atten Disord. 2010;13:524–531. doi: 10.1177/1087054709332460. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • [32].Thaler NS, Bello DT, Etcoff LM. WISC-IV Profiles are associated with differences in symptomatology and outcome in children with ADHD. J Atten Disord 2012. doi: 10.1177/1087054711428806. [DOI] [PubMed]
  • [33].Arime Y., Kubo Y., Sora I. Animal models of attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. Biol Pharm Bull. 2011;34:1373–1376. doi: 10.1248/bpb.34.1373. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • [34].Howells F.M., Stein D.J., Russell V.A. Synergistic tonic and phasic activity of the locus coeruleus norepinephrine (LCNE) arousal system is required for optimal attentional performance. Metab Brain Dis. 2012;27(3):267–274. doi: 10.1007/s11011-012-9287-9. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • [35].Aston-Jones G., Cohen J.D. Adaptive gain and the role of the locus coeruleus-norepinephrine system in optimal performance. J Comp Neurol. 2005;493:99–110. doi: 10.1002/cne.20723. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • [36].Heinze H.J., Munte T.F., Kutas M., Butler S.R., Naatanen R., Nuwer M.R., et al. Cognitive event-related potentials. The International Federation of Clinical Neurophysiology. Electroencephalogr Clin Neurophysiol Suppl. 1999;52:91–95. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • [37].Chennu S., Bekinschtein T.A. Arousal modulates auditory attention and awareness: insights from sleep, sedation, and disorders of consciousness. Front Psychol. 2012;3:65. doi: 10.3389/fpsyg.2012.00065. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • [38].Helenius P., Laasonen M., Hokkanen L., Paetau R., Niemivirta M. Impaired engagement of the ventral attentional pathway in ADHD. Neuropsychologia. 2011;49:1889–1896. doi: 10.1016/j.neuropsychologia.2011.03.014. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • [39].Kratz O., Studer P., Malcherek S., Erbe K., Moll G.H., Heinrich H. Attentional processes in children with ADHD: an eventrelated potential study using the attention network test. Int J Psychophysiol. 2011;81:82–90. doi: 10.1016/j.ijpsycho.2011.05.008. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • [40].Buchmann J., Gierow W., Reis O., Haessler F. Intelligence moderates impulsivity and attention in ADHD children: an ERP study using a go/nogo paradigm. World J Biol Psychiatry. 2011;12(Suppl1):35–39. doi: 10.3109/15622975.2011.600354. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • [41].Lazzaro I., Gordon E., Whitmont S., Meares R., Clarke S. The modulation of late component event related potentials by prestimulus EEG theta activity in ADHD. Int J Neurosci. 2001;107:247–264. doi: 10.3109/00207450109150688. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • [42].Holcomb P.J., Ackerman P.T., Dykman R.A. Auditory eventrelated potentials in attention and reading disabled boys. Int J Psychophysiol. 1986;3:263–273. doi: 10.1016/0167-8760(86)90035-8. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • [43].Karayanidis F., Robaey P., Bourassa M., De Koning D., Geoffroy G., Pelletier G. ERP differences in visual attention processing between attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder and control boys in the absence of performance differences. Psychophysiology. 2000;37:319–333. doi: 10.1111/1469-8986.3730319. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • [44].Johnstone S.J., Barry R.J., Anderson J.W., Coyle S.F. Age-related changes in child and adolescent event-related potential component morphology, amplitude and latency to standard and target stimuli in an auditory oddball task. Int J Psychophysiol. 1996;24:223–238. doi: 10.1016/S0167-8760(96)00065-7. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • [45].Pliszka S.R., Liotti M., Woldorff M.G. Inhibitory control in children with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder: event-related potentials identify the processing component and timing of an impaired right-frontal response-inhibition mechanism. Biol Psychiatry. 2000;48:238–246. doi: 10.1016/S0006-3223(00)00890-8. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • [46].Barry R.J., Johnstone S.J., Clarke A.R. A review of electrophysiology in attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder: II. Eventrelated potentials. Clin Neurophysiol. 2003;114:184–198. doi: 10.1016/S1388-2457(02)00363-2. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • [47].Ebner A., Sciarretta G., Epstein C.M., Nuwer M. EEG instrumentation. The International Federation of Clinical Neurophysiology. Electroencephalogr Clin Neurophysiol Suppl. 1999;52:7–10. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • [48].Broyd S.J., Helps S.K., Sonuga-Barke E.J. Attention-induced deactivations in very low frequency EEG oscillations: differential localisation according to ADHD symptom status. PLoS One. 2011;6:e17325. doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0017325. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • [49].Broyd S.J., Demanuele C., Debener S., Helps S.K., James C.J., Sonuga-Barke E.J. Default-mode brain dysfunction in mental disorders: a systematic review. Neurosci Biobehav Rev. 2009;33:279–296. doi: 10.1016/j.neubiorev.2008.09.002. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • [50].Helps S.K., Broyd S.J., James C.J., Karl A., Chen W., Sonuga-Barke E.J. Altered spontaneous low frequency brain activity in attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder. Brain Res. 2010;1322:134–143. doi: 10.1016/j.brainres.2010.01.057. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • [51].Raichle M.E., Snyder A.Z. A default mode of brain function: a brief history of an evolving idea. Neuroimage. 2007;37:1083–1090. doi: 10.1016/j.neuroimage.2007.02.041. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • [52].Sonuga-Barke E.J., Castellanos F.X. Spontaneous attentional fluctuations in impaired states and pathological conditions: a neurobiological hypothesis. Neurosci Biobehav Rev. 2007;31:977–986. doi: 10.1016/j.neubiorev.2007.02.005. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • [53].Nazari M.A., Wallois F., Aarabi A., Berquin P. Dynamic changes in quantitative electroencephalogram during continuous performance test in children with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. Int J Psychophysiol. 2011;81:230–236. doi: 10.1016/j.ijpsycho.2011.06.016. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • [54].Noachtar S., Binnie C., Ebersole J., Mauguiere F., Sakamoto A., Westmoreland B. A glossary of terms most commonly used by clinical electroencephalographers and proposal for the report form for the EEG findings. The International Federation of Clinical Neurophysiology. Electroencephalogr Clin Neurophysiol Suppl. 1999;52:21–41. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • [55].Bush G., Valera E.M., Seidman L.J. Functional neuroimaging of attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder: a review and suggested future directions. Biol Psychiatry. 2005;57:1273–1284. doi: 10.1016/j.biopsych.2005.01.034. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • [56].Dockstader C., Gaetz W., Cheyne D., Wang F., Castellanos F.X., Tannock R. MEG event-related desynchronization and synchronization deficits during basic somatosensory processing in individuals with ADHD. Behav Brain Funct. 2008;4:8. doi: 10.1186/1744-9081-4-8. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • [57].Mulas F., Capilla A., Fernandez S., Etchepareborda M.C., Campo P., Maestu F., et al. Shifting-related brain magnetic activity in attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. Biol Psychiatry. 2006;59:373–379. doi: 10.1016/j.biopsych.2005.06.031. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • [58].Kempton S., Vance A., Maruff P., Luk E., Costin J., Pantelis C. Executive function and attention deficit hyperactivity disorder: stimulant medication and better executive function performance in children. Psychol Med. 1999;29:527–538. doi: 10.1017/S0033291799008338. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • [59].Wilson TW, Franzen JD, Heinrichs-Graham E, White ML, Knott NL, Wetzel MW. Broadband neurophysiological abnormalities in the medial prefrontal region of the default-mode network in adults with ADHD. Hum Brain Mapp 2011. doi:10.1002/hbm.21459. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed]
  • [60].Wilson T.W., Wetzel M.W., White M.L., Knott N.L. Gammafrequency neuronal activity is diminished in adults with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder: a pharmaco-MEG study. J Psychopharmacol. 2012;26:771–777. doi: 10.1177/0269881111430731. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • [61].Kobel M., Bechtel N., Specht K., Klarhofer M., Weber P., Scheffler K., et al. Structural and functional imaging approaches in attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder: does the temporal lobe play a key role? Psychiatry Res. 2010;183:230–236. doi: 10.1016/j.pscychresns.2010.03.010. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • [62].Durston S. A review of the biological bases of ADHD: what have we learned from imaging studies? Ment Retard Dev Disabil Res Rev. 2003;9:184–195. doi: 10.1002/mrdd.10079. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • [63].Arnsten A.F. Fundamentals of attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder: circuits and pathways. J Clin Psychiatry. 2006;67(Suppl8):7–12. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • [64].Krain A.L., Castellanos F.X. Brain development and ADHD. Clin Psychol Rev. 2006;26:433–444. doi: 10.1016/j.cpr.2006.01.005. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • [65].Qiu M.G., Ye Z., Li Q.Y., Liu G.J., Xie B., Wang J. Changes of brain structure and function in ADHD children. Brain Topogr. 2011;24:243–252. doi: 10.1007/s10548-010-0168-4. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • [66].Seidman L.J., Biederman J., Liang L., Valera E.M., Monuteaux M.C., Brown A., et al. Gray matter alterations in adults with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder identified by voxel based morphometry. Biol Psychiatry. 2011;69:857–866. doi: 10.1016/j.biopsych.2010.09.053. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • [67].Nagel B.J., Bathula D., Herting M., Schmitt C., Kroenke C.D., Fair D., et al. Altered white matter microstructure in children with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry. 2011;50:283–292. doi: 10.1016/j.jaac.2010.12.003. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • [68].van Ewijk H., Heslenfeld D.J., Zwiers M.P., Buitelaar J.K., Oosterlaan J. Diffusion tensor imaging in attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Neurosci Biobehav Rev. 2012;36:1093–1106. doi: 10.1016/j.neubiorev.2012.01.003. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • [69].Konrad A., Dielentheis T.F., El Masri D., Dellani P.R., Stoeter P., Vucurevic G., et al. White matter abnormalities and their impact on attentional performance in adult attention-deficit/ hyperactivity disorder. Eur Arch Psychiatry Clin Neurosci. 2012;262(4):351–360. doi: 10.1007/s00406-011-0251-1. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • [70].Xia S., Li X., Kimball A.E., Kelly M.S., Lesser I., Branch C. Thalamic shape and connectivity abnormalities in children with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. Psychiatry Res. 2012;204:161–167. doi: 10.1016/j.pscychresns.2012.04.011. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • [71].Cao X., Cao Q., Long X., Sun L., Sui M., Zhu C., et al. Abnormal resting-state functional connectivity patterns of the putamen in medication-naive children with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder. Brain Res. 2009;1303:195–206. doi: 10.1016/j.brainres.2009.08.029. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • [72].Fassbender C., Zhang H., Buzy W.M., Cortes C.R., Mizuiri D., Beckett L., et al. A lack of default network suppression is linked to increased distractibility in ADHD. Brain Res. 2009;1273:114–128. doi: 10.1016/j.brainres.2009.02.070. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • [73].Rubia K., Halari R., Smith A.B., Mohammad M., Scott S., Brammer M.J. Shared and disorder-specific prefrontal abnormalities in boys with pure attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder compared to boys with pure CD during interference inhibition and attention allocation. J Child Psychol Psychiatry. 2009;50:669–678. doi: 10.1111/j.1469-7610.2008.02022.x. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • [74].Passarotti A.M., Sweeney J.A., Pavuluri M.N. Neural correlates of response inhibition in pediatric bipolar disorder and attention deficit hyperactivity disorder. Psychiatry Res. 2010;181:36–43. doi: 10.1016/j.pscychresns.2009.07.002. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • [75].Ptak R. The frontoparietal attention network of the human brain: action, saliency, and a priority map of the environment. Neuroscientist. 2012;18(5):502–515. doi: 10.1177/1073858411409051. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • [76].Arnsten A.F., Rubia K. Neurobiological circuits regulating attention, cognitive control, motivation, and emotion: disruptions in neurodevelopmental psychiatric disorders. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry. 2012;51:356–367. doi: 10.1016/j.jaac.2012.01.008. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • [77].Tomasi D., Volkow N.D. Abnormal functional connectivity in children with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. Biol Psychiatry. 2012;71:443–450. doi: 10.1016/j.biopsych.2011.11.003. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

Articles from Neuroscience Bulletin are provided here courtesy of Springer

RESOURCES