Table 1.
MA effects on glucocorticoids, HPA axis associated genes/proteins, and stress-associated behaviors.
| Effects | References | ||
|---|---|---|---|
| Glucocorticoids | Adult Acute exposure | ↑ levels (rodent, non-human primate, and human) | Zuloaga et al., 2014; Madden et al., 2005; Harris et al., 2003 |
| Adult repeated exposure | Alterations in circadian rhythm (rat) | Morimasa et al., 1987; Li et al., 2013 | |
| Decreased basal levels during withdrawal (human) | |||
| Developmental acute exposure | ↑ levels (mouse and rat) | Grace et al., 2008; Acevedo et al., 2008 | |
| Developmental repeated exposure | Neonatal exposure: No effects or subtle ↑ following adult stressor (rat) | Grace et al., 2012 | |
| Prenatal Exposure: No effect on basal levels (rat) Elevated stress induced levels in 2 year olds (human) | Cabrera et al., 1993; Kirlic et al., 2013 | ||
| HPA axis associated genes/proteins | CRF | Adult exposure: ↑ in CEA and NAC (rat) | Nawata et al., 2012; Cadet et al., 2014 |
| AVP | Neonatal/Juvenile exposure: Lasting decreases in AVP-expressing cells in the PVN (mouse) | Zuloaga et al., 2013; Joca et al., 2014. | |
| GR | Adult exposure: ↓ in hippocampus, hypothalamus, and striatum (rat) | Lowy and Novotney, 1994 | |
| MR | Adult exposure: ↓ in hippocampus (rat) | Lowy, 1990 | |
| Stress-associated behaviors | Anxiety-related | Prenatal exposure: No effects (rat) ↑ in 3–5 year olds (human) | Hruba et al., 2012; LaGasse et al., 2012 |
| Neonatal exposure: Subtle↑ or ↓ found in adulthood, depends on timing and dose (rat) | Williams et al., 2003; Hruba et al., 2012 | ||
| No effects (mouse) | Eastwood et al., 2012; | ||
| Adult exposure: ↑ during withdrawal (rat, human) | Nawata et al., 2012; London et al., 2004 | ||
| Depressive-related | Prenatal exposure: ↑ in 3–5 year olds (human) | LaGasse et al., 2012 | |
| Juvenile exposure: ↑ in adulthood (mouse) | Joca et al., 2014 | ||
| Adult exposure: ↑ during withdrawal (rat, human) | Jang et al., 2013; Li et al., 2013 |