Table 3.
Maternal Caffeine Consumption and Risk of Isolated LDs, the NBDPS 1997 to 2007
| All LDs | Longitudinal | Longitudinal preaxial | Transverse | |||||||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Cases | Controls | aORa,b | 95% CI | Cases | Controls | aORc | 95% CI | Cases | Controls | aORd | 95% CI | Cases | Controls | aORb | 95% CI | |
| Total caffeine (mg/day) | ||||||||||||||||
| 0–<10 | 79 | 1440 | 1.0 | 24 | 1440 | 1.0 | 10 | 1437 | 1.0 | 53 | 1440 | 1.0 | ||||
| 10–<100 | 228 | 2877 | 1.5 | (1.2–2.0) | 57 | 2877 | 1.2 | (0.7–1.9) | 25 | 2872 | 1.1 | (0.5–2.4) | 155 | 2877 | 1.5 | (1.1–2.1) |
| 100–<200 | 167 | 1850 | 1.7 | (1.3–2.3) | 47 | 1850 | 1.5 | (0.9–2.5) | 17 | 1843 | 1.2 | (0.5–2.5) | 113 | 1850 | 1.8 | (1.3–2.5) |
| 200–<300 | 81 | 1023 | 1.5 | (1.1–2.1) | 26 | 1023 | 1.5 | (0.9–2.7) | 12 | 1022 | 1.4 | (0.6–3.2) | 53 | 1023 | 1.5 | (1.0–2.2) |
| 300+ | 64 | 879 | 1.4 | (1.0–2.0) | 24 | 879 | 1.6 | (0.9–2.9) | 9 | 877 | 1.0 | (0.4–2.7) | 39 | 879 | 1.3 | (0.9–2.0) |
| Coffee (cups) | ||||||||||||||||
| 0–<1/month | 332 | 4420 | 1.0 | 98 | 4420 | 1.0 | 44 | 4409 | 1.0 | 221 | 4420 | 1.0 | ||||
| 1/month–6 weeks | 80 | 1182 | 0.9 | (0.7–1.2) | 18 | 1182 | 0.7 | (0.4–1.1) | 7 | 1180 | 0.6 | (0.3–1.3) | 53 | 1182 | 0.9 | (0.7–1.2) |
| 1/day | 107 | 1183 | 1.2 | (0.9–1.5) | 27 | 1183 | 1.0 | (0.7–1.6) | 9 | 1180 | 0.8 | (0.4–1.6) | 76 | 1183 | 1.2 | (0.9–1.6) |
| 2/day | 56 | 723 | 1.0 | (0.8–1.4) | 19 | 723 | 1.2 | (0.7–1.9) | 7 | 721 | 0.9 | (0.4–2.0) | 35 | 723 | 0.9 | (0.7–1.4) |
| 3+/day | 44 | 561 | 1.0 | (0.7–1.4) | 16 | 561 | 1.3 | (0.8–2.2) | 6 | 561 | 0.8 | (0.3–2.0) | 28 | 561 | 1.0 | (0.6–1.5) |
| Tea (cups) | ||||||||||||||||
| 0–<1/month | 359 | 4361 | 1.0 | 112 | 4361 | 1.0 | 43 | 4349 | 1.0 | 237 | 4361 | 1.0 | ||||
| 1/month–6 weeks | 148 | 2230 | 0.8 | (0.7–1.0) | 37 | 2230 | 0.6 | (0.4–0.9) | 17 | 2227 | 0.8 | (0.4–1.3) | 99 | 2230 | 0.8 | (0.7–1.1) |
| 1–2/day | 85 | 1126 | 0.9 | (0.7–1.2) | 18 | 1126 | 0.6 | (0.4–1.0) | 8 | 1124 | 0.7 | (0.3–1.5) | 62 | 1126 | 1.0 | (0.8–1.4) |
| 3+/day | 27 | 352 | 1.0 | (0.7–1.6) | 11 | 352 | 1.2 | (0.6–2.3) | 5 | 351 | 1.2 | (0.5–3.0) | 15 | 352 | 1.0 | (0.6–1.6) |
| Soda (12 ounce serving)e | ||||||||||||||||
| 0 mg/day | 187 | 2776 | 1.0 | 51 | 2776 | 1.0 | 21 | 2772 | 1.0 | 129 | 2776 | 1.0 | ||||
| 1/month–<1/day | 164 | 2085 | 1.2 | (1.0–1.5) | 44 | 2085 | 1.1 | (0.8–1.7) | 17 | 2081 | 1.1 | (0.6–2.0) | 112 | 2085 | 1.2 | (0.9–1.5) |
| 1–2/day | 169 | 2036 | 1.3 | (1.0–1.6) | 49 | 2036 | 1.3 | (0.9–1.9) | 19 | 2032 | 1.1 | (0.6–2.1) | 110 | 2036 | 1.2 | (0.9–1.6) |
| 3+/day | 99 | 1172 | 1.4 | (1.1–1.8) | 34 | 1172 | 1.6 | (1.0–2.5) | 16 | 1166 | 1.4 | (0.7–2.8) | 62 | 1172 | 1.3 | (0.9–1.8) |
a
aOR and associated 95% CIs.
b
ORs adjusted for study site.
c
Not adjusted for any covariates. Crude ORs are reported.
d
OR adjusted for maternal exposure to environmental smoking and active smoking during 1 month before pregnancy through the first trimester.
e
Milligrams of caffeine per day from soft drinks were converted into frequencies based on the following amounts per serving: <34 mg = <1 serving; 34–<102 = 1–2 servings; and 102 + mg = 3 + servings.
LD, limb deficiency; NBDPS, National Birth Defects Prevention Study; aOR, adjusted odds ratio; CI, confidence interval.