Table 4.
Maternal Caffeine Consumption and Risk of Multiple Congenital Anomaly with LDs, the NBDPS 1997 to 2007
| All LDs | Longitudinal | Longitudinal preaxial | Transverse | |||||||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Cases | Controls | aORa,b | 95% CI | Cases | Controls | aORc | 95% CI | Cases | Controls | aORd | 95% CI | Cases | Controls | aORc | 95% CI | |
| Total caffeine (mg/day) | ||||||||||||||||
| 0–<10 | 40 | 1429 | 1.0 | 25 | 1437 | 1.0 | 19 | 1434 | 1.0 | 11 | 1437 | 1.0 | ||||
| 10–<100 | 93 | 2857 | 1.2 | (0.8–1.7) | 69 | 2866 | 1.5 | (0.9–2.3) | 58 | 2862 | 1.5 | (0.9–2.6) | 25 | 2866 | 1.2 | (0.6–2.5) |
| 100–<200 | 44 | 1832 | 0.9 | (0.6–1.4) | 26 | 1837 | 0.9 | (0.5–1.6) | 22 | 1832 | 0.9 | (0.5–1.7) | 16 | 1837 | 1.3 | (0.6–2.7) |
| 200–<300 | 26 | 1015 | 1.0 | (0.6–1.7) | 15 | 1017 | 1.0 | (0.5–1.9) | 13 | 1016 | 1.0 | (0.5–2.1) | 11 | 1017 | 1.7 | (0.7–3.9) |
| 300+ | 20 | 873 | 0.9 | (0.5–1.6) | 10 | 875 | 0.8 | (0.4–1.6) | 7 | 874 | 0.6 | (0.2–1.4) | 11 | 875 | 2.0 | (0.8–4.6) |
| Coffee (cups) | ||||||||||||||||
| 0–<1/month | 139 | 4384 | 1.0 | 98 | 4403 | 1.0 | 81 | 4395 | 1.0 | 38 | 4403 | 1.0 | ||||
| 1/month–6 weeks | 31 | 1174 | 0.9 | (0.6–1.3) | 20 | 1175 | 0.8 | (0.5–1.3) | 18 | 1173 | 0.9 | (0.5–1.5) | 10 | 1175 | 1.0 | (0.5–2.1) |
| 1/day | 24 | 1174 | 0.7 | (0.4–1.1) | 14 | 1177 | 0.6 | (0.3–1.0) | 10 | 1174 | 0.5 | (0.3–1.0) | 10 | 1177 | 1.1 | (0.5–2.1) |
| 2/day | 15 | 716 | 0.8 | (0.5–1.3) | 6 | 718 | 0.4 | (0.2–1.0) | 5 | 717 | 0.4 | (0.2–1.1) | 9 | 718 | 1.7 | (0.8–3.6) |
| 3+/day | 14 | 558 | 0.9 | (0.5–1.6) | 7 | 559 | 0.7 | (0.3–1.4) | 5 | 559 | 0.5 | (0.2–1.3) | 7 | 559 | 1.8 | (0.8–4.0) |
| Tea (cups) | ||||||||||||||||
| 0–<1/month | 121 | 4326 | 1.0 | 82 | 4340 | 1.0 | 67 | 4331 | 1.0 | 37 | 4340 | 1.0 | ||||
| 1/month–6 weeks | 58 | 2216 | 1.0 | (0.7–1.4) | 37 | 2220 | 0.9 | (0.6–1.4) | 29 | 2217 | 0.9 | (0.6–1.4) | 22 | 2220 | 1.2 | (0.7–2.1) |
| 1–2/day | 35 | 1113 | 1.2 | (0.8–1.7) | 22 | 1121 | 1.1 | (0.7–1.8) | 20 | 1119 | 1.2 | (0.7–2.0) | 11 | 1121 | 1.2 | (0.6–2.4) |
| 3+/day | 9 | 351 | 0.9 | (0.4–1.8) | 4 | 351 | 0.6 | (0.2–1.7) | 3 | 351 | 0.5 | (0.2–1.6) | 4 | 351 | 1.3 | (0.5–3.8) |
| Soda (12 ounce serving)e | ||||||||||||||||
| 0 mg/day | 66 | 2748 | 1.0 | 40 | 2763 | 1.0 | 30 | 2760 | 1.0 | 24 | 2763 | 1.0 | ||||
| 1/month–<1/day | 71 | 2075 | 1.4 | (1.0–2.0) | 44 | 2077 | 1.5 | (1.0–2.3) | 35 | 2074 | 1.6 | (1.0–2.6) | 26 | 2077 | 1.5 | (0.8–2.6) |
| 1–2/day | 61 | 2021 | 1.2 | (0.9–1.8) | 44 | 2028 | 1.5 | (1.0–2.4) | 38 | 2024 | 1.7 | (1.1–2.8) | 15 | 2028 | 0.9 | (0.5–1.7) |
| 3+/day | 25 | 1162 | 0.9 | (0.5–1.4) | 17 | 1164 | 1.0 | (0.6–1.9) | 16 | 1160 | 1.2 | (0.6–2.2) | 9 | 1164 | 0.9 | (0.4–2.0) |
aOR and associated 95% CIs.
ORs adjusted for education and any alcohol drinking during 1 month before pregnancy through the first trimester.
ORs adjusted for any alcohol drinking during 1 month before pregnancy through the first trimester.
ORs adjusted for maternal exposure to environmental smoking and active smoking during 1 month before pregnancy through the first trimester and any alcohol drinking during 1 month before pregnancy through the first trimester.
Milligrams of caffeine per day from soft drinks were converted into frequencies based on the following amounts per serving: <34 mg = <1 serving; 34–<102 = 1–2 servings; 102+ mg = 3 + servings.
LD, limb deficiency; NBDPS, National Birth Defects Prevention Study; aOR, adjusted odds ratio; CI, confidence interval.