Table 2.

Summary of neurocognitive effects of stimulant use.

Source	Improvements	Deficits	Inconclusive
Advokat 2010 [21]	Information consolidation Duration of information retention Attention during simple tasks	Selective attention during complex tasks	No improvement shown in acquisition or retention of information or working memory
Baranski & Pigeau 1997 [26]	Perceptual judgment Complex addition
Baranski et al. 2004 [27]	No induction of overconfidence Vigilance Logical reasoning accuracy and speed
Caldwell et al. 2000 [28]	Sustained alertness during period of fatigue
Dyme et al. 1982 [43]	Task speed and performance	Response errors on tasks requiring executive functioning
Elliott et al. 1997 [30]	Accuracy on spatial tasks Short-term and working memory Planning Adaptation Cognitive performance on novel tasks	In familiar situations: poor response latency/impulsivity in response → response errors	No effects on non-spatial tasks related to frontal lobe function including: 1. Verbal fluency 2. Attention shifting
Farah et al. 2009 [40]	Convergent creativity (tasks with objective corrective answers) in those with lower baseline creativity	Convergent creativity in those who are highly creative at baseline	Effects on divergent (subjective) creativity
Greely et al. 2008 [22]	Flexibility in tasks requiring executive functioning Response inhibition/impulsivity
Hester et al. 2012 [34]	Conscious performance error detection
Ilieva et al. 2013 [41]	Convergent creativity in those with low baseline scores Word recall in those with low baseline scores Subjective perception of cognitive performance Cognition in those with val-val COMT allele	Convergent creativity in those with high baseline scores Word recall in those with high baseline scores	Potential enhanced performance on novel tasks
Izquierdo et al. 2008 [44]	Duration of information retention/short-term memory
Killgore et al. 2009 [29]	During sleep deprivation: Planning ability Decreased perseverative errors
Koelega 1993 [20]	Reaction time Sustained attention Vigilance in tasks requiring selective attention		Executive functions Prevention of decrements in attention during fatigue Response inhibition
Marchant et al. 2009 [25]	Cognitive performance in challenging tasks which require several switches in attention
Pigeau et al. 1995 [45]	Serial reaction time Logical reasoning
Rapoport et al. 1980 [38]	Vigilance Acoustic learning (as demonstrated by improved free and cued recall) Decreased response errors
Rogers et al. 1999 [33]	In evolving tasks … Response latency Ability to shift attention Decreased response errors	Selective attention with greater response latency and errors
Smith & Farah 2011 [46]	Response accuracy in novel tasks Learning of concrete, repeated information	Decreased response latency → increased impulsive responses	Unknown effect on tasks requiring reasoning
Soetens et al. 1995 [39]	Retention of unrelated words after 24 hours Retention peaks at 1 hour delay Ability to distinguish targets from distractors in recognition Memory consolidation		Knowledge acquisition
Turner et al. 2003 [24]	Adaptive inhibitory control → response accuracy