Table 2.
Demographic characteristics of participants in the yoga group and the control group, by gender.
| Characteristics | Men | Women | ||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Yoga (n = 34) | Control (n = 30) | P | Yoga (n = 53) | Control (n = 56) | P | |
| M ± SD or f (%) | M ± SD or f (%) | |||||
| Age, years | 53.68 ± 7.91 | 53.50 ± 8.27 | 0.931 | 51.64 ± 6.57 | 50.46 ± 7.35 | 0.381 |
| Marital status, %† | 0.067 | 0.589 | ||||
| Single | 2 (5.9) | 0 (0) | 11 (20.8) | 14 (25.0) | ||
| Married | 28 (82.4) | 29 (96.7) | 42 (79.2) | 42 (75.0) | ||
| Widowed | 4 (11.8) | 1 (3.3) | 0 (0.0) | 0 (0) | ||
| Education level, %† | 0.087 | 0.543 | ||||
| No education | 0 (0) | 0 (0) | 0 (0) | 1 (1.8) | ||
| Primary | 0 (0) | 0 (0) | 5 (9.4) | 5 (8.9) | ||
| Secondary | 12 (35.3) | 17 (56.7) | 33 (62.3) | 37 (66.1) | ||
| Tertiary | 22 (64.7) | 13 (43.3) | 15 (28.3) | 13 (23.2) | ||
| Occupation, %† | 0.355 | 0.813 | ||||
| Full-time | 21 (61.8) | 16 (53.5) | 27 (50.9) | 29 (51.8) | ||
| Part-time | 1 (2.9) | 0 (0) | 4 (7.5) | 5 (8.9) | ||
| Unemployed | 0 (0) | 2 (6.7) | 0 (0) | 0 (0) | ||
| Housewife | 0 (0) | 0 (0) | 18 (34.0) | 12 (21.4) | ||
| Retired | 12 (35.3) | 12 (40) | 4 (7.5) | 10 (17.9) | ||
| Medication use, % | ||||||
| Antidiabetic | 0.064 | 0.688 | ||||
| Yes | 8 (23.5) | 2 (6.7) | 7 (13.2) | 6 (10.7) | ||
| No | 26 (76.5) | 28 (93.3) | 46 (86.8) | 50 (89.3) | ||
| Antihypertensive | 0.791 | 0.066 | ||||
| Yes | 7 (20.6) | 7 (23.3) | 13 (24.5) | 23 (41.1) | ||
| No | 27 (79.4) | 23 (76.7) | 40 (75.5) | 33 (58.9) | ||
| Lipid lowering | 0.872 | 0.904 | ||||
| Yes | 3 (8.8) | 3 (10.0) | 9 (17.0) | 10 (17.9) | ||
| No | 31 (91.2) | 27 (90.0) | 44 (83.0) | 46 (82.1) | ||
| Smoking, %† | 0.953 | 0.328 | ||||
| Current | 1 (2.9) | 2 (6.7) | 0 (0) | 1 (1.8) | ||
| Quitted | 6 (17.6) | 4 (13.3) | 0 (0) | 0 (0) | ||
| Never | 27 (79.4) | 24 (80.0) | 53 (100) | 55 (98.2) | ||
| Alcohol intake, %† | 0.384 | 0.069 | ||||
| Quitted | 1 (2.9) | 1 (3.3) | 0 (0) | 0 (0) | ||
| Never | 8 (23.5) | 10 (33.3) | 22 (41.5) | 33 (58.9) | ||
| Sometimes | 23 (67.6) | 17 (56.7) | 30 (56.6) | 22 (39.3) | ||
| Always | 2 (5.9) | 2 (6.7) | 1 (1.9) | 1 (1.8) | ||
| Physical activity level, MET-minutes/week | 1332.36 ± 1047.76 | 1569.36 ± 769.31 | 0.330 | 2109.24 ± 2145.74 | 1781.99 ± 1714.95 | 0.422 |
| HRQoL | ||||||
| Physical function (PF) | 93.24 ± 5.89 | 88.67 ± 14.50 | 0.096 | 85.85 ± 11.88 | 84.20 ± 10.78 | 0.448 |
| Role physical (RP) | 91.18 ± 19.35 | 85.83 ± 26.82 | 0.360 | 77.36 ± 32.62 | 85.71 ± 26.05 | 0.141 |
| Bodily pain (BP) | 71.26 ± 19.07 | 69.73 ± 23.99 | 0.777 | 62.57 ± 19.87 | 66.18 ± 21.49 | 0.365 |
| General health perceptions (GH) | 61.03 ± 11.33 | 59.17 ± 11.60 | 0.519 | 60.47 ± 12.37 | 61.96 ± 12.20 | 0.527 |
| Physical component score (PCS) | 316.71 ± 33.06 | 303.40 ± 59.33 | 0.282 | 286.25 ± 60.58 | 298.05 ± 51.23 | 0.273 |
| Vitality (VT) | 71.03 ± 12.30 | 67.00 ± 15.62 | 0.253 | 64.06 ± 16.11 | 64.82 ± 17.61 | 0.814 |
| Social functioning (SF) | 86.40 ± 13.89 | 89.58 ± 14.71 | 0.376 | 83.25 ± 20.35 | 87.05 ± 17.02 | 0.292 |
| Role emotional (RE) | 80.39 ± 32.94 | 91.11 ± 23.05 | 0.133 | 71.07 ± 37.00 | 85.71 ± 29.72 | 0.025 |
| General mental Health (MH) | 77.65 ± 11.49 | 78.53 ± 14.23 | 0.784 | 73.74 ± 15.08 | 77.57 ± 14.30 | 0.176 |
| Mental component score (MCS) | 315.47 ± 53.26 | 326.23 ± 53.23 | 0.423 | 292.12 ± 75.16 | 315.16 ± 65.25 | 0.090 |
| Body measurements | ||||||
| SBP, mmHg | 132.82 ± 16.80 | 132.17 ± 19.97 | 0.887 | 125.87 ± 15.21 | 132.18 ± 21.16 | 0.076 |
| DBP, mmHg | 78.32 ± 10.79 | 80.97 ± 11.27 | 0.342 | 76.64 ± 10.43 | 80.39 ± 12.07 | 0.086 |
| BMI, kg/m2 | 24.28 ± 4.21 | 25.45 ± 2.83 | 0.203 | 24.55 ± 3.62 | 26.14 ± 4.37 | 0.041 |
| Outcome measures | ||||||
| Cardiorespiratory endurance | ||||||
| Resting heart rate, bpm | 67.53 ± 9.31 | 66.77 ± 9.10 | 0.742 | 69.11 ± 9.06 | 70.61 ± 9.97 | 0.416 |
| VO2max, mL/kg/min | 32.99 ± 6.77 | 32.95 ± 6.76 | 0.982 | 26.35 ± 5.51 | 24.69 ± 4.37 | 0.083 |
| Muscular strength and endurance | ||||||
| Curl-ups, times | 20.18 ± 6.42 | 22.47 ± 4.00 | 0.088 | 21.04 ± 5.43 | 19.38 ± 4.86 | 0.095 |
| Push-ups, times | 9.50 ± 9.50 | 6.67 ± 5.93 | 0.153 | 1.87 ± 4.30 | 1.82 ± 3.37 | 0.950 |
| Flexibility | ||||||
| MBS left leg, cm | 39.99 ± 11.47 | 49.28 ± 13.36 | 0.004 | 52.46 ± 8.44 | 51.28 ± 10.66 | 0.520 |
| MBS right leg, cm | 39.66 ± 11.80 | 49.56 ± 14.00 | 0.003 | 52.41 ± 8.31 | 50.89 ± 11.21 | 0.424 |
The total percentage may not add up exactly to 100% due to rounding.
BMI: body mass index; DBP: diastolic blood pressure; HRQoL: health-related quality of life; MBS: the modified back-saver sit-and-reach test; SBP: systolic blood pressure; VO2max: maximal oxygen uptake.
†Variables were regrouped for analyses as follows: marital status (single + widowed versus married), education level (No education + primary + secondary versus tertiary), occupation (full-time + part-time versus unemployed + housewife + retired), smoking (current + quitted versus never), and alcohol intake (quitted + sometimes + always versus never).