. Author manuscript; available in PMC: 2015 Oct 1.

Published in final edited form as: Trauma Violence Abuse. 2014 Apr 27;15(4):265–282. doi: 10.1177/1524838014521031

Table 1.

Findings Regarding Alcohol's Effects on Men's Sexual Aggression Against Women.

Study information
Authors	Sample	Method of analysis	Sexual aggression	Main effects	Alcohol	Mediator and moderator effects
SURVEY DESIGN
Cross-sectional studies
(1) Cross-sectional studies that compare perpetrators' and nonperpetrators' alcohol consumption
Koss and Gaines (1993)	530 Coll, Psych, Ath, M age = 18.9	SMR	mSES: Severity	SIG SIG	1) Heavy 2) Freq	Med: N/A
Koss and Gaines (1993)	530 Coll, Psych, Ath, M age = 18.9	SMR	mSES: Severity	SIG SIG	1) Heavy 2) Freq	Mod: N/A
Ouimette (1997)	103 Coll, M age = 21	χ², MANOVA, ANOVA	SES: Rape/attempt	SIG SIG	1) Problem dependence 2) Problem symptoms	Med: N/A
Ouimette (1997)	103 Coll, M age = 21	χ², MANOVA, ANOVA	SES: Rape/attempt	SIG SIG	1) Problem dependence 2) Problem symptoms	Mod: N/A
Lackie and de Man (1997)	86 Coll, Ath, Canada, ages = 18–24	Corr, SMR	mSES: Number	NS	1) Freq	Med: N/A
Lackie and de Man (1997)	86 Coll, Ath, Canada, ages = 18–24	Corr, SMR	mSES: Number	NS	1) Freq	Mod: N/A
Calhoun, Bernat, Clum, and Frame (1997)	65 Comm, RepReg, M age = 19.9	SMR, ANOVA	mSES: Number	NS	1) Quant date/sex	Med: N/A
Calhoun, Bernat, Clum, and Frame (1997)	65 Comm, RepReg, M age = 19.9	SMR, ANOVA	mSES: Number	NS	1) Quant date/sex	Mod: N/A
Abbey, McAuslan, and Ross (1998)	798 Coll, RepCW, Mdn age = 22	SEM, HMR	mSES: Number	N/A	1) Latent factor: R and Partner freq date/sex, and R freq, quant, heavy	Med: SIG Med: SIG	1) Likelihood of committing SA if unpunished 2) Misperception
Abbey, McAuslan, and Ross (1998)	798 Coll, RepCW, Mdn age = 22	SEM, HMR	mSES: Number	N/A		Mod: NS Mod: NS Mod: NS Mod: NS	1) Dating and sexual experiences 2) Rape supportive beliefs 3) Misperception 4) Aggression/sex AE
Abbey, McAuslan, Zawacki, Clinton, and Buck^a (2001)	343 Coll, RepCW, Mdn age = 21	MANCOVA, ANCOVA	mSES: Severity, incident	SIG SIG	1) Q × F date/sex 2) Combined R and partner incident	Med: N/A
Abbey, McAuslan, Zawacki, Clinton, and Buck^a (2001)	343 Coll, RepCW, Mdn age = 21	MANCOVA, ANCOVA	mSES: Severity, incident	SIG SIG	1) Q × F date/sex 2) Combined R and partner incident	Mod: N/A
Schwartz, DeKeseredy, Tait, and Alvi (2001)	1,307 Coll, RepNat, Canada, Mdn age = 22.3	χ², LR	SES: Severity (past year)	SIG SIG	1) Freq 2) Freq date/sex	Med: N/A
Schwartz, DeKeseredy, Tait, and Alvi (2001)	1,307 Coll, RepNat, Canada, Mdn age = 22.3	χ², LR	SES: Severity (past year)	SIG SIG	1) Freq 2) Freq date/sex	Mod: N/A
Merrill, Thomsen, Gold, and Milner (2001)	7,850 Military, M age = 19.87	LR	SES: Severity	SIG	1) Problem	Med: N/A
Merrill, Thomsen, Gold, and Milner (2001)	7,850 Military, M age = 19.87	LR	SES: Severity	SIG	1) Problem	Mod: N/A
Wilson, Calhoun, and McNair (2002)	186 Coll, Psych, M age = 19.8	ANOVA, MR	SES: Number, Y/N	SIG	1) Quant × Freq	Med: N/A
Wilson, Calhoun, and McNair (2002)	186 Coll, Psych, M age = 19.8	ANOVA, MR	SES: Number, Y/N	SIG	1) Quant × Freq	Mod: SIG	1) Sex alcohol expectancy
Carr and VanDeusen (2004)	99 Coll, M age = 20	Corr, SMR	SES, likelihood of raping if unpunished	SIG	1) Problem	Med: N/A
Carr and VanDeusen (2004)	99 Coll, M age = 20	Corr, SMR	SES, likelihood of raping if unpunished	SIG	1) Problem	Mod: N/A
Locke and Mahalik (2005)	254 Coll, RepReg, M age = 19.70	Corr	SES: Number	SIG	1) Problem	Med: N/A
Locke and Mahalik (2005)	254 Coll, RepReg, M age = 19.70	Corr	SES: Number	SIG	1) Problem	Mod: N/A
Abbey, Parkhill, BeShears, Clinton-Sherrod, and Zawacki^b (2006)	163 Comm, RDD, Mdn age = 29	Corr, path analysis	mSES: Number	SIG	1) Problem	Med: SIG Med: SIG	1) SexDom to CasSex Relationships to SA 2) SexDom to Peer Pressure to SA
	163 Comm, RDD, Mdn age = 29	Corr, path analysis	mSES: Number	SIG	1) Problem	Mod: N/A
Abbey, Parkhill, Clinton-Sherrod, and Zawacki^b (2007)	163 Comm, RDD, Mdn age = 29	DFA, ANOVA	mSES: Severity: rape/attempt, verbal coercion, nonperp	SIG	Rape/attempt > nonperp on date/sex	Med: N/A
Abbey, Parkhill, Clinton-Sherrod, and Zawacki^b (2007)	163 Comm, RDD, Mdn age = 29	DFA, ANOVA	mSES: Severity: rape/attempt, verbal coercion, nonperp	SIG	Rape/attempt > nonperp on date/sex	Mod: N/A
Lyndon, White, and Kadlec (2007)	621 Coll, Ist Yr, T1 ages 18–20	DFA, ANOVA, χ²	SES: nonperps, manipulation, force	NS SIG	1) Heavy general in DFA 2) R and Partner heavy drinking in incident: Force > manipulation and nonperps in χ²	Med: N/A
Lyndon, White, and Kadlec (2007)	621 Coll, Ist Yr, T1 ages 18–20	DFA, ANOVA, χ²	SES: nonperps, manipulation, force	NS SIG		Mod: N/A
Parkhill and Abbey (2008)	356 Coll, CW, 21 or older and social drinker, M age = 25.2	Path analysis	mSES: Number when R sober mSES: Number when R drinking	SIG	1) Q × F date/sex only to SA when R drinking	Med: SIG	1) Quant × Freq
Parkhill and Abbey (2008)	356 Coll, CW, 21 or older and social drinker, M age = 25.2	Path analysis	mSES: Number when R sober mSES: Number when R drinking	SIG	1) Q × F date/sex only to SA when R drinking	Mod: NS Mod: NS	1) HM × Q × F date/sex 2) Impersonal Sex × Q × F date/sex
Rapoza and Drake (2009)	164 Coll, Couples, Psych, ages 17-34	Cluster	CTS2: Number	SIG	Cluster 2 with all heavy drinkers > Cluster 1 with majority normal drinkers	Med: N/A
Rapoza and Drake (2009)	164 Coll, Couples, Psych, ages 17-34	Cluster	CTS2: Number	SIG		Mod: N/A
Gallagher, Hudepohl, and Parrott (2010)	167 Comm, M age = 26.35	HMR	CTS2: Number	SIG SIG	1) Freq 2) Quant	Med: N/A
Gallagher, Hudepohl, and Parrott (2010)	167 Comm, M age = 26.35	HMR	CTS2: Number	SIG SIG	1) Freq 2) Quant	Mod: SIG Mod: NS	1) Freq: Mindfulness 2) Quant: Mindfulness
Abbey, Jacques-Tiura, and Lebreton^c (2011)	470 Comm, Rep, M age = 23.67	Corr, SEM	mSES: Number	SIG SIG N/A	1) Corr: Heavy 2) Corr: Q × F date/sex 3) SEM: latent factor	Med: SIG Med: SIG	1) Impersonal sex 2) Misperception
Abbey, Jacques-Tiura, and Lebreton^c (2011)	470 Comm, Rep, M age = 23.67	Corr, SEM	mSES: Number	SIG SIG N/A		Mod: N/A
Greene and Davis (2011)	289 Comm, Nat, ages 18-35	LPA, ANOVA	mSES: Number	SIG	High quant associated with “High AN” risk factor profile. “High AN” > Other Profiles	Med: N/A
Greene and Davis (2011)	289 Comm, Nat, ages 18-35	LPA, ANOVA	mSES: Number	SIG		Mod: N/A
Lisco, Parrott, and Tharp (2012)	205 Comm, M age = 24.96	HMR	CTS2: Number	NS	1) Quant	Med: N/A
Lisco, Parrott, and Tharp (2012)	205 Comm, M age = 24.96	HMR	CTS2: Number	NS	1) Quant	Mod: SIG Mod: NS	1) Hostile sexism 2) Benevolent sexism
(2) Cross-sectional studies that include only perpetrators
Ullman, Karabatsos, and Koss (1999)	694 Coll, RepNat, Perp, M age = 21	HMR, path analysis	SES: Severity	SIG NS SIG	1) Heavy 2) R Y/N incident 3) Partner Y/N incident	Med: N/A
Ullman, Karabatsos, and Koss (1999)	694 Coll, RepNat, Perp, M age = 21	HMR, path analysis	SES: Severity	SIG NS SIG	1) Heavy 2) R Y/N incident 3) Partner Y/N incident	Mod: NS Mod: NS Mod: NS Mod: NS	R Y/N Incident by 1) R aggression 2) Relationship with partner 3) Heavy 4) Planned interaction vs. not
Abbey, Clinton-Sherrod, McAuslan, Zawacki, and Buck^a (2003)	113 Coll, perp, M age = 23	HMR, path analysis	mSES: Severity	SIG SIG SIG	1) Freq 2) R quant incident: Curvilinear 3) Partner quant incident	Med: N/A
	113 Coll, perp, M age = 23	HMR, path analysis	mSES: Severity	SIG SIG SIG		Mod: N/A
Parkhill, Abbey, and Jacques-Tiura^b (2009)	107 Comm, RDD, perp, M age = 31.6	DFA, MANCOVA	mSES: Severity	SIG	Incident Heavy > Light or No	Med: N/A
Parkhill, Abbey, and Jacques-Tiura^b (2009)	107 Comm, RDD, perp, M age = 31.6	DFA, MANCOVA	mSES: Severity	SIG	Incident Heavy > Light or No	Mod: N/A
(3) Cross-sectional studies that compare perpetrators who use alcohol or other tactics
Tyler, Hoyt, and Whitbeck (1998)	189 Coll, Family studies, ages 21–24	Corr, MR	Own Scale: Verbal coercion, Alc/Drug tactics, Physical force	SIG	1) Heavy drinking (usual) related to alc/drug tactics, but not verbal coercion or physical force	Med: N/A
Tyler, Hoyt, and Whitbeck (1998)	189 Coll, Family studies, ages 21–24	Corr, MR		SIG		Mod: N/A
Abbey and Jacques-Tiura^c (2011)	457 Comm, RepReg, M age = 23.67	DFA, MANCOVA	mSES: Verbal coercion, Alcohol tactic, NonPerps	SIG SIG SIG SIG	Alcohol tactic > Others 1) Problem 2) Quant 3) R and partner quant incident 4) R and partner heavy incident	Med: N/A
Abbey and Jacques-Tiura^c (2011)	457 Comm, RepReg, M age = 23.67	DFA, MANCOVA	mSES: Verbal coercion, Alcohol tactic, NonPerps	SIG SIG SIG SIG		Mod: N/A
Prospective studies
(4) Alcohol consumption as a prospective predictor of perpetration
Loh, Gidycz, Lobo, and Luthra (2005)	278 Coll, SA program, 71% ages 18–19 Baseline, 3 Mo and 7 Mo	LR	SES: Y/N 1) Baseline SA 2) 3 Mo SA 3) 7 Mo SA	NS NS NS	1) T1 Q ×F 2) T1 Q × F 3) T1 Q × F	Med: N/A
Loh, Gidycz, Lobo, and Luthra (2005)		LR	SES: Y/N 1) Baseline SA 2) 3 Mo SA 3) 7 Mo SA	NS NS NS	1) T1 Q ×F 2) T1 Q × F 3) T1 Q × F	Mod: N/A
Gidycz, Warkentin, and Orchowski (2007)	341 Coll, Psych, 78% ages 18–19, 3 Mo	Corr, LR	T2 SES: Severity	SIG NS NS	Corr: 1) T1 problem LR analysis: 1) T1 quant 2) T1 problem	Med: N/A
Gidycz, Warkentin, and Orchowski (2007)	341 Coll, Psych, 78% ages 18–19, 3 Mo	Corr, LR	T2 SES: Severity	SIG NS NS	Corr: 1) T1 problem LR analysis: 1) T1 quant 2) T1 problem	Mod: N/A
Thompson, Koss, Kingree, Goree, and Rice^d (2011)	652 Coll, 1 st Y, T1 M age= 18.56, 2 Yr	Path analysis	mSES: Number and Severity Index	N/A	1) T1 and T2 heavy	Med: SIG	1) Perceived peer approval of forced sex
Thompson, Koss, Kingree, Goree, and Rice^d (2011)	652 Coll, 1 st Y, T1 M age= 18.56, 2 Yr	Path analysis	mSES: Number and Severity Index	N/A	1) T1 and T2 heavy	Mod: N/A
(5) Alcohol consumption as a predictor of patterns and trajectories of perpetration
Abbey and McAuslan^a (2004)	197 Coll, CW,T2 M age = 22.90, 1 Yr	MANCOVA, ANCOVA	SES: Any, nonperp, desister (T1), initiator (T2), persister (TI/T2)	NS SIG-REV	1) Persist > others on T1 heavy 2) Persist < desist on T1 date/sex	Med: N/A
Abbey and McAuslan^a (2004)	197 Coll, CW,T2 M age = 22.90, 1 Yr	MANCOVA, ANCOVA		NS SIG-REV		Mod: N/A
Abbey, Wegner, Pierce, and Jacques-Tiura^c(2012)	423 Comm, RepReg, T1 M age = 23, 1 Yr	DFA, ANOVA	SES: Any, nonperp, desister (T1), initiator (T2), persister (TI/T2)	SIG SIG	1) T1 Perps > T1 NonPerps: T1 R and Partner date/sex 2) Initiators > NonPerps: T2 R and Partner date/sex	Med: N/A
Abbey, Wegner, Pierce, and Jacques-Tiura^c(2012)	423 Comm, RepReg, T1 M age = 23, 1 Yr	DFA, ANOVA		SIG SIG		Mod: N/A
Thompson, Swartout, and Koss^d(2013)	795 Coll, 1 st Y,T1 M age= 18.56, 4 Yr	LCGA, MLR	mSES: Index number × severity. Trajectories: Increasing, decreasing, and high	None as predicted	Heavy drinking with SA trajectory: 1) High TI, T4 for high SA 2) High T1, low T4 for decreasing SA 3) Low T4, high T1 for increasing SA	Med: N/A
Thompson, Swartout, and Koss^d(2013)	795 Coll, 1 st Y,T1 M age= 18.56, 4 Yr	LCGA, MLR		None as predicted		Mod: N/A
EXPERIMENTAL DESIGN
(6) Written vignettes
Norris and Kerr (1993)	96 Coll, M age = 25.4	MANOVA	R behave like male char	NS	.04 BAC, balanced placebo design	Med: N/A
Norris and Kerr (1993)	96 Coll, M age = 25.4	MANOVA	R behave like male char	NS	.04 BAC, balanced placebo design	Mod: SIG Mod: NS Mod: NS	1) Alcohol in story (NS ME) 2) Alcohol expectancy set (NS ME) 3) Hypermasculinity (NS ME)
Norris, George, Davis, Martell, and Leonesio (1999)	121 Comm, M age = 27.14	HMR	R behave like male char	NS	.06 BAC, alcohol, placebo, sober	Med: N/A
Norris, George, Davis, Martell, and Leonesio (1999)	121 Comm, M age = 27.14	HMR	R behave like male char	NS	.06 BAC, alcohol, placebo, sober	Mod: NS Mod: NS Mod: NS Mod: NS	1) Alcohol in story (NS ME) 2) Alcohol expectancy set (NS ME) 3) Woman distressed or not (NS ME) 4) Hypermasculinity (SIG ME)
Norris, Davis, George, Martell, and Heiman (2002)	135 Comm, M age = 28.6	ANOVA, path analysis	R behave like male char	NS	.06 BAC, alcohol, placebo, sober	Med: SIG	1) Woman enjoyed forced sex (SIG ME)
Norris, Davis, George, Martell, and Heiman (2002)	135 Comm, M age = 28.6	ANOVA, path analysis	R behave like male char	NS	.06 BAC, alcohol, placebo, sober	Mod: SIG	1) Sex-related AE (SIG ME)
Davis, Norris, George, Martell, and Heiman (2006)	84 Comm, M age = 27.1	HMR, path analysis	R behave like male char	NS	.07 BAC, alcohol vs. control	Med: SIG	1) R sexual arousal
Davis, Norris, George, Martell, and Heiman (2006)	84 Comm, M age = 27.1	HMR, path analysis	R behave like male char	NS	.07 BAC, alcohol vs. control	Mod: NS	1) Woman distressed or not (NS ME)
Davis (2010)	124 Comm, M age = 24.56	Path analysis	R likelihood of forcing sex	NS	.08 BAC, alcohol vs. control	Med: SIG	1) R's anger/arousal
Davis (2010)	124 Comm, M age = 24.56	Path analysis	R likelihood of forcing sex	NS	.08 BAC, alcohol vs. control	Mod/Med: SIG	1) Drink × Aggression AE mediates R's anger/arousal
Davis et al. (2012)	227 Comm, History risky sex, M age = 25.5	Path analysis, content effect, dosage effect	R likelihood of forcing sex	N/A	High .10 BAC, Low .05 BAC, placebo, control	Med: SIG Med: SIG Med: SIG Med: NS	With content: 1) Woman's sexual arousal 2) R feels entitled to sex With dosage: 3) Woman's sexual arousal 4) R feels entitled to sex
Davis et al. (2012)	227 Comm, History risky sex, M age = 25.5	Path analysis, content effect, dosage effect	R likelihood of forcing sex	N/A	High .10 BAC, Low .05 BAC, placebo, control	Mod: N/A
(7) Videotapes
Johnson, Noel, and Sutter-Hernandez (2000)	118 Coll, M age = 23.1	ANOVA, content effect	R willing to force sex	SIG	High .07 BAC, low .03 BAC, placebo, control	Med: N/A
Johnson, Noel, and Sutter-Hernandez (2000)	118 Coll, M age = 23.1	ANOVA, content effect	R willing to force sex	SIG	High .07 BAC, low .03 BAC, placebo, control	Mod: SIG	1) Woman friendly vs. cold (SIG ME)
Noel, Maisto, Johnson, and Jackson (2009)	334 Comm, M age = 22.6	LR, content effect	R would continue sex	SIG	High .08 BAC, low .04 BAC, (combined for analyses), placebo, control (combined for analyses)	Med: N/A
Noel, Maisto, Johnson, and Jackson (2009)	334 Comm, M age = 22.6	LR, content effect	R would continue sex	SIG		Mod: NS Mod: NS Mod: SIG	1) Antiforce cues (NS ME) 2) AIV (NS ME) 3) Anti-force cues × SexDom (NS ME)
Abbey, Parkhill, Jacque-Tiura, and Saenz (2009)	72 Coll, M age = 25.21	HMR	R feels justified using coercive strategies	NS	.08 BAC, alcohol, placebo, sober	Med: N/A
Abbey, Parkhill, Jacque-Tiura, and Saenz (2009)	72 Coll, M age = 25.21	HMR	R feels justified using coercive strategies	NS	.08 BAC, alcohol, placebo, sober	Mod: SIG Mod: SIG Mod: NS	1) Misperception history (NS ME) 2) HTW (NS ME) 3) Perp status (SIG ME)
(8) Audiotapes
Marx, Gross, and Juergens^e (1997)	153 Coll, Psych, M age = 22.3	ANOVA	Decision latency (seconds)	SIG	.05 BAC, balanced placebo design	Med: N/A
Marx, Gross, and Juergens^e (1997)	153 Coll, Psych, M age = 22.3	ANOVA	Decision latency (seconds)	SIG	.05 BAC, balanced placebo design	Mod: NS Mod: NS	1) Alcohol expectancy set (SIG ME) 2) Token resistance (NS ME)
Marx, Gross, and Adams^e (1999)	153 Coll, Psych, M age = 22.3	ANCOVA	Decision latency (seconds)	SIG	.05 BAC, balanced placebo design	Med: N/A
Marx, Gross, and Adams^e (1999)	153 Coll, Psych, M age = 22.3	ANCOVA	Decision latency (seconds)	SIG	.05 BAC, balanced placebo design	Mod: NS Mod: NS	1) Alcohol expectancy set (SIG ME) 2) SA history (NS ME)
Gross, Bennett, Sloan, Marx, and Juergens (2001)	160 Coll, M age = 22.3	ANOVA	Decision latency (seconds)	SIG	.05 BAC, balanced placebo design	Med: N/A
Gross, Bennett, Sloan, Marx, and Juergens (2001)	160 Coll, M age = 22.3	ANOVA	Decision latency (seconds)	SIG	.05 BAC, balanced placebo design	Mod: NS Mod: SIG	1) Alcohol expectancy set (SIG ME) 2) Woman's perceived sexual arousal over time

Note. Studies with the same superscript use the same sample. R = participant.

Sample Column: Coll = college; Comm = community; Psych = psychology students; Ath = student athletes; 1st Y = First-year student sample; Rep = representative; CW = campus-wide; Reg = region; Nat = national; RDD = random digit dialing; SA program = control group for SA prevention program.

Method of Analysis Column: Corr = correlation; SEM = structural equation modeling; χ² = chi-square analysis, MR = multiple regression; SMR = stepwise multiple regression; MANOVA = multivariate analysis of variance; DFA = discriminant function analysis; ANOVA = analysis of variance; ANCOVA = analysis of covariance; MANCOVA = multivariate analysis of covariance; HMR = hierarchical multiple regression; LR = logistic regression; MLR = multinomial logistic regression; LPA = latent profile analysis; LCGA = latent class growth analysis.

Sexual Aggression Column: SA = sexual aggression; SES = Sexual Experiences Scale (Koss, Gidycz, & Wisniewski, 1987) measures sexual aggression since the age of 14 (unless otherwise specified); mSES = modified version of SES; CTS2 = Conflict Tactics Scale-2 (Straus, Hamby, Bony-McCoy, & Sugarman, 1996) measures sexual aggression in the past year; Number = number of sexually aggressive acts, Y/N = yes or no sexual aggression perpetration; Frequency = frequency of sexual aggression; Severity = index of sexual aggression severity.

Main Effect Column: ME = main effect; SIG = significant; NS = nonsignificant; N/A = not examined or not reported, SIG-REV = finding opposite of what was hypothesized.

Alcohol Column: Y/N = does the participant drink ever; Freq = frequency; Quant: quantity; Q × F: quantity multiplied by frequency; Heavy = heavy drinking (e.g., drinking to intoxication, 5+ on one occasion, etc.); Problem = problem drinking (e.g., alcohol problems, dependence symptoms, and negative consequences); Date/sex = drinking during dating or sexual situations; Incident = drinking during the sexual assault incident. Experimental studies list the goal blood alcohol concentration (BAC) in the alcohol content condition, as well as all other experimental conditions.

Mediator or moderator effects column: HM = hostile masculinity; AE = alcohol expectancy, Alcohol Expectancy Set: experimentally manipulated alcohol expectancy set, SexDom = sexual dominance; CasSex: casual sexual; HTW = hostility toward women; AIV = acceptance of interpersonal violence.