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. Author manuscript; available in PMC: 2016 Jul 1.
Published in final edited form as: Ear Hear. 2015 Jul-Aug;36(4):395–407. doi: 10.1097/AUD.0000000000000142

Table 5.

Regression Models for Cognitive Function and Global Cognitive Status Outcomes

Model 1
 Model 2
Variable β 95% CI t β 95% CI t
Digit Symbol Substitution
PTA Better Hearing Ear - - - −.094 −.15 – −.03 −2.99 **
Age −.302 −.70 – .48 −10.67*** −.260 −.63 – −.39 −8.28***
Race .267 7.79 – 12.0 9.22*** .267 7.81 – 12.0 9.27***
Sex −.210 −6.28 – −3.64 −7.36*** −.201 −6.07 – −3.42 −7.03***
Education .248 .830 – 1.31 8.70*** .241 .80 – 1.28 8.45***
Diabetes −.100 −5.14 – −1.44 −3.49*** −.098 −5.06 – −1.37 −3.42***
Hypertension −.088 −3.39 – −.73 −3.04** −.085 −3.30 – −.66 −2.93**
Stroke −.032 −3.40 – .91 −1.13 −.032 −3.39 – .90 −1.14
Heart Disease −.054 −3.49 – .08 −1.88 −.060 −3.65 – −.09 −2.06*
CES-D −.123 −.30 – −.11 −4.31*** −.117 −.29 – −.10 −4.11***
R2 .319 .326
Δ R 2 .007
Digit Symbol Copy
PTA Better Hearing Ear - - - .084 .07 – .54 2.56 *
Age .303 1.77 – 2.61 10.21*** .266 1.45 – 2.39 8.06***
Race −.266 −44.39 – −28.12 −8.75*** −.266 −44.41 – −28.19 −8.79***
Sex .112 4.58 – 14.80 3.72*** .103 3.85 – 14.10 3.44***
Education −.212 −4.31 – −2.44 −7.09*** −.205 −4.20 – −2.33 −6.86***
Diabetes .049 −1.22 – 13.06 1.63 .047 −1.46 – 12.78 1.56
Hypertension .074 1.22 – 11.49 2.43* .071 .97 – 11.21 2.33*
Stroke .041 −2.55 – 14.17 1.37 .041 −2.50 – 14.16 1.37
Heart Disease .022 −4.36 – 9.43 .72 .027 −3.81 – 9.95 .88
CES-D .123 .40 – 1.11 4.13*** .118 .36 – 1.08 3.95***
R2 .253 .259
Δ R 2 .006
Trail Making Test Part A
PTA Better Hearing Ear - - - .062 −.01 – .29 1.85
Age .312 1.14 – 1.66 10.40*** .285 .98 – 1.57 8.50***
Race −.313 −31.95 – −21.64 −10.20*** −.313 −31.96 – −21.66 −10.22***
Sex .112 2.85 – 9.32 3.69*** .106 2.50 – 9.00 3.47***
Education −.159 −2.18 – −1.00 −5.26*** −.154 −2.13 – −.95 −5.09***
Diabetes .046 −1.01 – 8.04 1.52 .045 −1.13 – 7.91 1.47
Hypertension .037 −1.26 – 5.25 1.21 .035 −1.38 – 5.12 1.13
Stroke −.015 −6.56 – 3.98 −.48 −.015 −6.56 – 3.97 −.48
Heart Disease −.029 −6.43 – 2.30 −.93 −.025 −6.19 – 2.55 −.82
CES-D .085 .10 – .55 2.82** .081 .08 – .54 2.68**
R2 .234 .237
Δ R 2 .003
Letter Comparison
PTA Better Hearing Ear - - - −.092 −.13 – −.02 −2.76 **
Age −.313 −.58 – −.40 −10.38*** −.272 −.53 – −.32 −8.11***
Race .166 3.14 – 6.75 5.39*** .167 3.16 – 6.75 5.42***
Sex −.170 −4.36 – −2.10 −5.60*** −.162 −4.20 – −1.93 −5.30***
Education .216 .54 – .96 7.11*** .209 .52 – .93 6.88***
Diabetes −.093 −4.03 – −.87 −3.04** −.091 −3.97 – −.81 −2.97**
Hypertension −.058 −2.22 – .06 −1.86 −.054 −2.15 – .12 −1.75
Stroke −.039 −3.07 – .64 −1.29 −.039 −3.07 – .63 −1.30
Heart Disease −.044 −2.63 – .43 −1.41 −.049 −2.75 – .29 −1.58
CES-D −.077 −.18 – −.02 −2.53* −.071 −.17 – −.02 −2.34*
R2 .228 .235
Δ R 2 .007
Pattern Comparison
PTA Better Hearing Ear - - - −.110 −.10 – −.03 −3.48 ***
Age −.380 −.47 – −.35 −13.22*** −.330 −.43 – −.29 −10.37***
Race .195 2.86 – 5.25 6.65*** .196 2.87 – 5.25 6.70***
Sex −.047 −1.37 – .13 −1.62 −.036 −1.23 – .28 −1.24
Education .239 .44 – .72 8.26*** .230 .42 – .69 7.96***
Diabetes −.119 −3.23 – −1.13 −4.08*** −.116 −3.17 – −1.09 −4.01***
Hypertension −.054 −1.46 – .05 −1.84 −.05 −1.40 – .10 −1.71
Stroke −.042 −2.13 – .31 −1.46 −.042 −2.12 – .31 −1.47
Heart Disease −.053 −1.94 – .09 −1.80 −.059 −2.04 – −.03 −2.01*
CES-D −.130 −.17 – −.07 −4.49*** −.123 −.17 – −.06 −4.28***
R2 .300 .310
Δ R 2 .010
UFOV®
PTA Better Hearing Ear - - - .090 .68 – 3.73 2.84 **
Age .447 18.84 – 24.27 15.59*** .406 16.60 – 22.64 12.76***
Race −.261 −293.96 – −187.74 −8.90*** −.261 −293.90 – −188.10 −8.94***
Sex .050 −3.96 – 62.45 1.73 .041 −9.25 – 57.29 1.42
Education −.123 −19.37 – −7.21 −4.29*** −.117 −18.62 – −6.46 −4.05***
Diabetes .096 31.71 – 124.56 3.30*** .094 29.98 – 122.50 3.24***
Hypertension .019 −22.12 – 44.66 .66 .016 −5.12 – 84.27 .56
Stroke −.019 −72.97 – 35.64 −.68 −.019 −72.88 – 35.29 −.68
Heart Disease .046 −9.01 – 80.58 1.57 .051 −5.12 – 84.27 1.74
CES-D .142 3.51 – 8.16 4.92*** .136 3.28 – 7.92 4.73***
R2 .307 .313
Δ R 2 .006
Trail-Making Test Part B
PTA Better Hearing Ear - - - .150 .77 – 1.91 4.59 ***
Age .272 3.76 – 5.81 9.15*** .205 2.47 – 4.74 6.25***
Race −.304 −121.90 – −81.87 −9.99*** −.304 −121.82 – −82.24 −10.12***
Sex .046 −2.76 – 22.36 1.53 .031 −5.86 – 19.13 1.04
Education −.203 −10.24 – −5.65 −6.79*** −.191 −9.77 – −5.21 −6.45***
Diabetes .095 10.51 – 45.64 3.14** .091 9.56 – 44.31 3.04**
Hypertension .067 1.51 – 26.75 2.20* .061 .45 – 25.43 2.03*
Stroke −.018 −26.76 – 14.16 −.60 −.018 −26.55 – 13.91 −.61
Heart Disease .028 −8.85 – 25.04 .94 .037 −6.35 – 27.22 1.22
CES-D .094 .53 – 2.30 3.15** .085 .40 – 2.14 2.85**
R2 .251 .269
Δ R 2 .017
Stroop
PTA Better Hearing Ear - - - .076 .01 – .18 2.16 *
Age .271 .60 – .97 8.36*** .238 .51 – .91 6.66***
Race −.191 −14.56 – −7.22 −5.82*** −.193 −14.71 – −7.38 −5.89***
Sex .116 1.80 – 6.23 3.56*** .109 1.44 – 5.90 3.33***
Education −.198 −1.66 – −.86 −6.13*** −.192 −1.63 – −.82 −5.95***
Diabetes .079 .75 – 6.93 2.44* .078 .73 – 6.90 2.41*
Hypertension .056 −.31 – 4.10 1.69 .052 −.53 – 3.89 1.57
Stroke .022 −2.32 – 4.87 .70 .023 −2.30 – 4.87 .42
Heart Disease −.001 −3.08 – 2.99 −.03 .003 −2.89 – 3.18 .09
CES-D .091 .07 – .38 2.83** .086 .06 – .38 2.65**
R2 .172 .177
Δ R 2 .005
Digit Span
PTA Better Hearing Ear - - - −.095 −.03 – −.00 −2.64 **
Age −.124 −.07 – −.02 −3.84*** −.082 −.05 – −.00 −2.28*
Race .156 .62 – 1.50 4.71*** .156 .62 – 1.50 4.74***
Sex −.069 −.57 – −.02 −2.10* −.059 −.53 – .02 −1.81
Education .183 .09 – .20 5.63*** .176 .09 – .19 5.39***
Diabetes −.082 −.87 – −.10 −2.48* −.079 −.86 – −.09 −2.42*
Hypertension −.072 −.58 – −.03 −2.17* −.069 −.57 – −.02 −2.07*
Stroke −.033 −.68 – .22 −1.01 −.033 −.68 – .22 −1.02
Heart Disease −.022 −.50 – .25 −.65 −.027 −.53 – .22 −.81
CES-D −.045 −.03 – .06 −1.37 −.039 −.03 – .01 −1.19
R2 .108 .115
Δ R 2 .007
Spatial Span
PTA Better Hearing Ear - - - −.074 −.02 – −.00 −2.06 *
Age −.150 −.06 – −.03 −4.63*** −.117 −.06 – −.01 −3.24***
Race .185 .68 – 1.41 5.57*** .185 .68 – 1.41 5.59***
Sex .000 −.23 – .23 −.00 .007 −.21 – .26 .22
Education .131 .04 – .13 4.00*** .125 .04 – .12 3.81***
Diabetes −.042 −.53 – .11 −1.28 −.040 −.53 – .12 −1.23
Hypertension −.022 −.31 .15 −.67 −.020 −.30 – .16 −.59
Stroke .062 −.01 – .74 1.89 .062 −.01 – .74 1.90
Heart Disease .043 −.11 – .52 1.30 .039 −.13 – .50 1.18
CES-D −.121 −.05 – −.01 −3.70*** −.116 −.05 – −.01 −3.56***
R2 .104 .108
Δ R 2 .004
Hopkins Verbal Learning Test
PTA Better Hearing Ear - - - −.168 −.11 – −.05 −5.15 ***
Age −.245 −.28 – −.17 −8.22*** −.170 −.22 – −.10 −5.19***
Race .249 3.37 – 5.50 8.18*** .250 3.40 – 5.49 8.32***
Sex −.298 −4.03 – −2.70 −9.90*** −.281 −3.84 – −2.52 −9.44***
Education .173 .24 – .48 5.77*** .160 .21 – .45 5.38***
Diabetes −.074 −2.10 – −.23 −2.45* −.070 −2.02 – −.17 −2.34*
Hypertension .015 −.50 – .84 .50 .021 −.43 – .90 .70
Stroke .014 −.83 – 1.35 .47 .014 −.81 – 1.33 .47
Heart Disease −.034 −1.42 – .38 −1.13 −.044 −1.55 – .23 −1.45
CES-D −.144 −.16 – −.07 −4.81*** −.134 −.15 – −.06 −4.52***
R2 .245 .267
Δ R 2 .022
Mini Mental State Exam
PTA Better Hearing Ear - - - −.106 −.03 – −.01 −3.16 **
Age −.260 −.10 – −.06 −8.60*** −.213 −.88 – −.05 −6.34***
Race .271 1.30 – 2.00 8.76*** .271 1.27 – 2.00 8.82***
Sex −.199 −1.00 – −.54 −6.53*** −.189 −.96 – −.50 −6.19***
Education .207 .10 – .19 6.79*** .198 .10 – .18 6.52***
Diabetes −.050 −.59 – .05 −1.65 −.048 −.58 – .07 −1.57
Hypertension −.027 −.33 – .13 −.87 −.023 −.32 – .14 −.75
Stroke .035 −.16 – −59 1.15 .035 −.15 – .59 1.15
Heart Disease .029 −.16 – .46 .951 .024 −.19 – .43 .77
CES-D −.092 −.04 – −.01 −3.04** −.086 −.04 – −.01 −2.83**
R2 .222 .231
Δ R 2 .009
*

p ≤ .05,

**

p ≤ .01,

***

p ≤ .001

Note. PTA = pure-tone average. Model 1(columns 2-4) included known risk factors of hearing loss. Model 2 (columns 5-7) added three-frequency PTA in the better hearing ear after all covariates were accounted for. The change in R2 represents the amount of variance that can be contributed to PTA in the better hearing ear after all other variables are considered. The β weights (column 2 for model 1 and column 5 for model 2) indicate the standard deviation change in the outcome associated with a 12 dB change in hearing. The 95% CI (column 3 for model 1 and column 6 for model 2) indicate the confidence interval or range of values across which β would be expected to occur 95% of the time. The t statistic (column 4 for model 1 and column 7 for model 2) is the β coefficient divided by its standard error. The asterisks beside the t values indicates whether or not the variable contributed significant variance, and if so, at what level.