Table 1.
Descriptive Characteristics.
| Citation | Country, State, and Setting | Method | Sample | Treatment Condition—Independent Variables | Follow up | Outcome Measures | Relevant Findings |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Jensen & Kane (2010) [20] | Idaho, USA | Survival Analysis | 1396 drug dependent offenders released from 4 Idaho prisons | TCI | 2 years | Time until re-arrest post release from prison | Completion of a TCI had significant effect on delaying time until first re-arrest. |
| Jensen & Kane (2012) [25] | Idaho, USA | Survival Analysis | 725 drug dependent offenders released from 4 Idaho prisons | TCI | 4 years | Time until re-arrest post release from prison | Completion of TC did not have effect on reducing re-arrest. |
| Wexler & Prendergast (2010) [21] | Thailand | Longitudinal Study | 769 drug dependent ex-residents in treatment programs—10.5% of whom were residents of 5 prison operated programs | TCI model implementation fidelity, prevalence of model modification, length in the program. | Average of 6 months after treatment | Change in criminal behaviour, re-arrest, drug abuse. | All outcomes reduced 6 months post treatment. |
| Lemieux et al. (2012) [26] | Southern State of USA. 3 Institutions. |
Cross-sectional descriptive study. | 226 drug dependent male and female youths released from three institutions in a Southern State after participating in a TCI. Follow up data available for 186 participants. |
TCI model was used in prison for drug dependent youths. | 2 years post release. | Recidivism—return to custody during the 2 year post release period. | 10.3% of TCI participants were recidivists. Female ex-offenders were less likely to experience re-incarceration compared to males. |
| Messina et al. (2010) [27] | California, USA. Valley State Prison for Women. |
Randomized experimental study, Longitudinal | 115 drug dependent women ex-residents. | Gender responsive treatment model of TCI vs. standard prison based therapeutic community. | 6 months and 12 months post release from prison | Psychological well-being, drug use post release, length of time in aftercare (based on completion of TCI), re-incarceration rates. | A gender sensitive TCI had greater reductions in drug misuse relapse, re-incarceration. |
| Miller & Miller,(2011) [28] | South Carolina, USA. South Carolina Department of Corrections. |
Quasi-experimental, Longitudinal | 303 first time, non-violent, drug-dependent youthful male ex-residents. | Modified TCI with a cognitive behavioural change component. | 12 month follow up period | Recidivism (re-arrest), relapse (drug use), and parole revocation. | No difference between treatment and control group on any of the outcome measures. |
| Sacks, McKendrick & Hamilton (2012) [22] | Colorado, USA. Denver Women’s Correctional Facility |
Randomised Clinical Trial | 468 female ex-offenders with substance use disorders. 235 participated in TCI. 192 participated in cognitive behavioural intervention. |
TCI treatment vs. Cognitive behavioural therapy. Voluntary TCI aftercare |
6 and 12 months post release from prison | Outcomes across 5 domains—crime (re-incarceration and re-arrest), drug use, mental health, trauma, and HIV-risk behaviour. | TCI was more effective than cognitive behavioural therapy in reducing rates of re-arrest, drug misuse, and re-incarceration |
| Sas et al. (2008) [24] | Colorado, USA. Denver Women’s Facility |
Randomised Clinical Trial | 314 Females with substance use disorders. 163 participated in TCI, 151 in regular. |
Experimental condition: participation in modified TC for female offenders. Control: CBT treatment |
6 months post release from prison. | Mental health, Substance Use, Criminal Behaviour (re-incarceration and re-arrest), HIV risk. |
Drug misuse rates reduced for both TCI and CBT interventions groups (no significant difference between two groups). Re-offending was lower with for TCI as compared to CBT group. |
| Sacks et al. (2012) [29] | Colorado, USA. 9 Colorado prisons. |
Randomised trial | 127 Male ex-offenders with co-occurring substance use disorders and mental disorders. | Men participated in either modified TCI program in Prison or standard care. Random assignment to either TCI aftercare (n = 71), or standard parole supervision & case management (n = 56). |
12 months post release. | Re-incarceration and drug misuse relapse. | TCI with aftercare group had lower rates of re-incarceration and drug misuse relapse. |
| Sullivan et al. (2007) [30] | Colorado, USA. Colorado Department of Corrections. |
Randomised Trial | 139 Male offenders with substance use disorders and at least one co-occurring mental disorder. | Modified TCI (for a population with co-occurring mental disorder) (n = 75) CBT based treatment (n = 64). 44 TCI participants opted for 6 months of residential aftercare. |
12 months post release. | Substance abuse and re-incarceration. | TCI had significant lower substance misuse. TCI had significantly lower illegal drug misuse. TCI had lower prevalence of re-incarceration. No separate analysis of the specific effect of aftercare. |
| Welsh (2007) [23] | Pennsylvania, USA. Five state prisons in Pennsylvania. | Longitudinal, quasi-experimental study | 708 male ex-offenders with substance use disorders. | 217 men participated in TCI programs in five state prisons. 491 men had access to substance abuse treatment only programs in prison. |
2 years post release | Re-incarceration, Re-arrest, Drug abuse relapse. | TCI significantly reduced re-arrest and re-incarceration rates but did not reduce drug misuse relapse rates. |
| Welsh & Zajac (2013) [31] | Pennsylvania, USA. Five state prisons in Pennsylvania |
Longitudinal, quasi experimental study. | 1553 male ex-offenders with substance use disorders. | TCI programs in five state prisons (n = 555). Substance abuse treatment only programs in prison (n = 998). |
4 years post release | Re-incarceration, Re-arrest, Drug abuse relapse. | TCI resulted in significantly reduced probability of re-incarceration. TCI failed to significantly reduce re-arrest or drug misuse. |
| Welsh, Zajac & Bucklen (2014) [32] | Pennsylvania, USA. State Correctional Institution at Chester. |
Longitudinal quasi-experimental design. | 604 male ex-offenders who participated in drug treatment in prison. Participants had no other serious mental health issues. | TCI (n = 286). Substance abuse group counselling program (n = 318). |
3 year follow up | Rates of re-incarceration 3 years after release from prison. | There was no significant difference in re-incarceration rates by treatment modality. Treatment completion rather than modality was a significant predictor of re-incarceration. |
| Zhang, Roberts & McCollister (2011) [33] | California, USA. | Longitudinal quasi-experimental | 798 male ex-offenders with substance abuse problems at the time of initial incarceration. | TCI (n = 395), some with aftercare (n = 101), while others did not (n = 294). No treatment (n = 394). |
1 year follow up and 5 years follow up | Re-incarceration and re-arrest 1 year post release. | TCI Aftercare participants less likely to be re-incarcerated (not statistically significant). TCI re-incarceration rates equivalent to no treatment. TCI with aftercare significantly fewer days in prison than those without aftercare. No differences in re-arrest rates or re-incarceration |