Table 1.

Developmental risk factors for innate immunity and inflammation: environmental chemicals and drugs.

Developmental risk factors	Innate immune effects(s)	Altered inflammatory conditions	References
Maternal smoking  and ETS	Altered expression of  TLRs; increased  numbers of lung  mast cells and  eosinophils;  decreased phago-  cytosis but ele-  vated production  of ROS by  macrophages	Dyslipidemia, hyper-  inflammation;  higher infant oxi-  dative stress	Blacquiere et al. (2009) Ishida et al. (2009) Ng et al. (2009) Noakes et al. (2006, 2007) Pfefferle, Pinkenburg, and Renz (2010) Yu et al. (2009)
Air and/or traffic  pollution	Variant TLR-2 and 4  alleles affect pol-  lutant impact	Increased eosinophil-  lic inflammation  and airway  remodeling	Clark et al. (2010) Herr et al. (2010, 2011) Kerkhof et al. (2010) Morgenstern et al. (2008)
Ozone	Disrupted epithelial  barrier; altered  macrophage  function	Interaction with  maternal PM  exposure to pro-  duce childhood  airway  hyperreactivity	Auten et al. (2009) Hollingsworth, Kleeberger, and Foster (2007) Lin et al. (2008)
Pb and synergistic  effects with  other metals	Altered dendritic cell  maturation (pro-  motion of Th2);  excessive TNF-  alpha and ROS by  macrophages	Inflammatory dys-  function; promo-  tion of tissue  damage, apoptosis  and DNA  mutagenesis	Bishayi and Sengupta (2006) Kasten-Jolly, Heo, and Lawrence (2010) Snyder et al. (2000)
Polychlorinated  biphenyls	Macrophage apopto-  sis; disrupted epi-  thelial barrier  function	Upregulation of  ICAM-1, MCP-1;  Notch3, CCLs and  IL-8; enhanced  vascular adhesion  and inflammation	Choi et al. (2010) Eum et al. (2009) Felty, Yoo, and Kennedy (2010) Grandjean et al. (2010) Majkova et al. (2009) Shin et al. (2000
Maternal and  early childhood  paracetamol  use	Decreased  gluthathione,  TNF-alpha and  IL-6 production by  pulmonary  macrophages	Glutathione deple-  tion; increased  oxidant-induced  inflammation	Bakkeheim et al. (2010) Beasley et al. (2008) Dimova et al. (2005) Etminan et al. (2009) Farquhar et al. (2010) Gonzalez-Diaz et al. (2010) Shaheen, Newson, Ring, et al. (2010)