Table 2. Basic Pathophysiological Mechanisms Activated by Exposure to Particulate Matter in Animal and Human Subjects.

Pathophysiological Mechanism	Selected References
Systemic inflammation	10,11
Systemic oxidative stress	10,16
Thrombosis and coagulation	17,18
Hypertension	7,8,19
Vascular dysfunction and atherosclerosis	10,20,21
Heart rate variability, ECG changes and arrhythmias	22-24
Myocardial fibrosis and heart failure	15,25,26
Epigenetic changes and gene expression	7,27