FIGURE 6.

Learning with prediction errors. A: feedback circuit diagram for prediction updating by error. An error is generated when outcome (reward, punisher) differs from its prediction. In Pavlovian conditioning, a prediction error after an outcome change leads to prediction updating which leads to a behavioral change. In operant conditioning, a prediction error after an outcome change leads to a behavioral change which leads to prediction updating. In contrast, no prediction error is generated when the outcome matches the prediction, and behavior remains unchanged. V is reward prediction, λ is reward, α is learning rate, and t is trial. B: typical learning curve, generated by gradually declining prediction errors [λ(t) − V(t)].