Table 1.
Potential Sapronoses from Pathogens in Engineered Water Systems.
| Microbial Group | Agent | Problematic Niche | Sapronose | Ref. | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Bacteria | Acinetobacter baumannii* | Free-living within biofilms of health-care settings | Range of nosocomial respiratory & other infections (via biofilms) from drinking water, breathing tubes & urinary catheters; antimicrobial resistant strains. | [56] | |
| Aeromonas hydrophila* | Ubiquitous in aquatic environments, colonize engineered water systems | Most strains do not appear to be of health concern (including enteric members), but some biofilm colonizers may cause wound infections | [57,58,59] | ||
|
Chlamydiales: Neochlamydia spp., Parachlamydia spp., Simkania negevensis, Waddlia chondrophila |
Obligate amoeba-resisting bacteria of environmental biofilms | Community acquired pneumonia Abortions in humans (and bovines) | [60,61,62,63] | ||
|
Legionella longbeacheae L. micdadei L. pneumophila |
Free-living within biofilms, but important pathogens within biofilm amoebae & other protozoa | Legionellosis (from mild Pontiac Fever to severe Legionnaires’ Disease); Community acquired pneumonia | [15,64,65,66] | ||
| Non-tuberculous mycobacteria (NTM); (1) rapid-growers: Mycobacterium abscessus, M. chelonae, M. fortuitum; (2) slow-growers: M. avium complex (MAC), M. ulcerans |
Free-living within biofilms, some appear facultative within biofilm amoebae and other protozoa | Community acquired pneumonia Lymphadenopathy, skin and soft tissue infection |
[19,66,67,68] | ||
| Pseudomonas aeruginosa | Ubiquitous in aquatic environments, colonize engineered water systems | Folliculitis from pools/spars and various nosocomial infections from plumbing biofilms | [8,69,70,71] | ||
| Stenotrophomonas maltophilia | Ubiquitous in aquatic environments, colonize engineered water systems | Range of nosocomial respiratory & other infections (via biofilms) in drinking water, breathing tubes & urinary catheters; antimicrobial resistant strains | [72] | ||
| Fungi |
Aspergillus fumigatus A. terreus |
Aspergillosis | [73,74] | ||
|
Candida albicans C. parapsilosis |
Candidiasis | [75] | |||
| Exophiala dermatitidis | Dermatitidis | [75] | |||
| Protozoa | Acanthamoeba spp. | Many strains appear to only grow saprophyticly; ubiquitous to aquatic biofilm environments | Granulomatous amoebic encephalitis; keratitis; lung & skin infections | [30,76,77,78,79] | |
| Balamuthia mandrillaris | Relatively rare but present in source and treated waters of temperate regions | Granulomatous amoebic encephalitis; lung & skin infections | |||
|
Hartmonella spp. Vahlkampfia spp. |
Many strains appear to only grow saprophyticly; ubiquitous to aquatic biofilm environments | Keratitis | |||
| Naegleria fowleri | Relatively rare but present in source and treated waters over 28 °C if inadequate residual disinfectant | Primary amoebic meningoencephalitis | |||
| Viruses |
Mimivirus (Shan virus) Mamavirus |
Potentially in various biofilm amoebae, first described in A. polyphaga | Weak pneumonia? | [80,81,82] | |
*Facultative saprozoic.