Table 1.

Neurophysiology of tics

Box-and-Arrow Model	Theoretical Modela	Human Patients	Dopamine Agonist Animal Model
Dopamine levels	↑	↑b	↑c
Striatal baseline activity	↓↑	↑d	↓↑e
BG output (GPi) baseline activity	↓	↓f	↓g
Cortical baseline activity	↑	↑h	?

Action Selection Model	Theoretical Modeli	Human Patients	Striatal Disinhibition Animal Model
Striatal tic-related activity	↑	↑j	↑k
BG output (GPi) tic-related activity	↓	↑f	↓l
Cortical tic-related activity	↑	↑m	↑l

Comparison between the predictions of theoretical Tourette syndrome (TS) models and experimental results from human patients and animal models of the disorder. BG, basal ganglia; GPi, global pallidus internus.

^aAlbin et al. (1989); DeLong (1990).

^bJankovic (2009).

^cKelley et al. (1988); Mansbach et al. (1988).

^dBaym et al. (2008).

^eFujita et al. (2013).

^fZhuang et al. (2009).

^gBoraud et al. (2001); Nevet et al. (2004).

^hZiemann et al. (1997).

ⁱAlbin and Mink (2006); Mink (2001).

^jStern et al. (2000).

^kBronfeld et al. (2011).

^lMcCairn et al. (2009).

^mBohlhalter et al. (2006); Neuner et al. (2014).