Table 1.
Inventory of African herbal and plant therapies of animal pain and diarrhea.
| Species | Family name | Part used | Diseases or symptoms | Reference | Tests: analgesia, inflammation and diarrhea | Compounds/class |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Achyranthes bidentata Blume | Amaranthaceae * | Abdominal pain and arthritis | [6] | Triterpenoid and saponin | ||
| Celosia trigyna L. † | Amaranthaceae | Whole plant- used in a mixture | Diarrhea, dysentery, pain arthritis and neuralgia | [4] | ||
| Agapanthus praecox Willd. | Amaryllidaceae | Small ruminants diarrhea | [53] | |||
| Ozoroa paniculosa (Sond.) R. & A. Fernandes | Anacardiaceae * | Bark and roots | Diarrhea | [54] | Anacardic acid, ginkgoic acid and triterpenes | |
| Protorhus longifolia (Bernh.) Engl. | Anacardiaceae | Cattle diarrhea | [53] | |||
| Scleoracarya birrea (A. Rich.) | Anacardiaceae * | Bark | Diarrhea | [54] | Paw edema, heat-induced pain [55] | Flavonol, epicatechin derivatives and tannins |
| Spondias mombin | Anacardiaceae | Leaves | Diarrhea | [56] | ||
| Rhus lancea L.F | Anacardiaceae | Roots/bark | Diarrhea | [54] | Flavonoid and tannins | |
| Annona senegalensis Pers. | Annonaceae * | Essential oils from leaves | Diarrhea and dysentery, toothaches, and tonic | [53,57,58] | Paw oedema, heat-induced pain [59,60]; anti-motility and anti-cholinergic tests | |
| Centella asiatica (L.) Urb. | Apiaceae * | Whole plants used in a mixed formulation | Diarrhea and dysentery | [4] | ||
| Acokanthera oppositifolia (Lam.) Codd | Apocynaceae * | Root decoctions | Pain and diarrhea | [54] | Polyphenolics and cardiac glycosides | |
| Calotropis procera Aiton. F | Apocynaceae | Leaves | Stomach pain | [61] | ||
| Landolphia heudelotii A. DC. | Apocynaceae | Leaves, bark | Diarrhea | [61] | ||
| Saba senegalensis (A.DC.) Pichon | Apocynaceae | Leaves | Diarrhea | [61] | ||
| Sarcostemma viminale | Apocynaceae | Stem | Diarrhea; increase productivity | [62] | Improve livestock productivity (milk) [63] | |
| Gomphocarpus fruticosus (L.) W.T.Aiton | Apocynaceae | Leaves | Diarrhea | [64] | ||
| Hydrocotyle mannii Hook.f. | Araliaceae | Leaves in a mixtures of leaves from other species | Diarrhea and dysentery | [4] | ||
| Aloe marlothii A.Berger | Asparagaceae * | Leaves | Diarrhea | [65] | ||
| Cordyline terminalis var. cannifolia (R.Br.) Benth. | Asparagaceae | Stem and root barks used in mixed preparations Trema orientalis (L.) Blume | Diarrhea, arthritis, fracture, neuralgia, rheumatism, sprain | [4] | ||
| Ledebouria revoluta (L.f.) Jessop | Asparagaceae * | Leaves mixed with leaves from other species; bulb | Diarrhea; ruminant diarrhea | [4,53] | Homoisoflavanones and chalcones | |
| Brachylaena ilicifolia (Lam.) Phillips & Schweick | Asteraceae | Leaves | Diarrhea (lambs) | [53] | ||
| Markhamia tomentosa (Benth.) K.Schum. ex Engl. | Bignoniaceae * | Roots and leaves | Diarrhea, dysentery, as febrifuge, painful and inflammation | [66] | ||
| Heliotropium indicum L. | Boraginaceae | Leaves | Acute diarrhea | [61] | ||
| Cynoglossum coeruleum Hochst. ex A.DC. | Boraginaceae | Crushed roots of Rumex nepalensis, Carduus nyassanus and C. coeruleum water extract | Diarrhea | [64] | ||
| Erucastrum arabicum Fisch. & C.A.Mey. † | Brassicaceae | Whole plant- used in a mixture with other plants | Bloody diarrhea, arthritis, fracture and neuralgia | [4] | ||
| Lobelia mildbraedii Engl. | Campanulaceae | Ground leaves mixed with several other species | Diarrhea | [4] | ||
| Humulus lupulus L. | Cannabaceae * | Seeds | Diarrhea, pain and sedative | [67,68] | COX-2 inhibition and arthritis in mice [69] | Phenolics and proanthrocyanidins [70] |
| Trema orientalis (L.) Blume † | Cannabaceae | Leaves used in mixed preparations | Diarrhea, arthritis, fracture, and, neuralgia | [4] | ||
| Capparis tomentosa Lam. | Capparaceae | Roots | Diarrhea | [53] | 3-Hydroxy- 4-methoxy-3-methyl-oxindole [71] | |
| Maytenus heterophylla (Eckl. & Zeyh.) N.Robson | Celastraceae | Leaf and bark | Diarrhea | [53] | Dulcitol, a spermidine alkaloid, celacinnine, triterpenoids and maytansine [72,73] | |
| Maytenus senegalensis (Lam.) Exell | Celastraceae * | Leaves | Diarrhea | [61] | ||
| Cassia sieberiana € | Cesalpiniaceae | Leaves, root, bark | Intestinal colic | [56] | ||
| Anogeissus leiocarpus | Combretaceae | Leaves | Abdominal pain | [56] | ||
| Guiera senegalensis J. F. Gmel | Combretaceae * | Stem, bark | Diarrhea | [61] | ||
| Terminalia sericea | Combretaceae * | Root decoctions | Diarrhea | [54,65] | Indian Arjuna has been tested for pain | Flavonoids and triterpenoids |
| Artemisia herb-alba | Compositae | Aerial parts | Diarrhea | Essential oils | ||
| Berkheya spekeana Oliv. | Compositae * | Leaves mixed with several other spp | Diarrhea | [4] | ||
| Bothriocline ugandensis S. Moore) M.G.Gilbert | Compositae | Ground leaves mixed with several other species | Diarrhea | [4] | ||
| Brachylaena ilicifolia (Lam.) Phillips & Schweick. | Compositae * | Leaves | Lamb diarrhea, pain | [53] | ||
| Crepis rueppellii Sch.Bip. | Compositae | Leaves | Diarrhea | [64] | ||
| Melanthera scandens † | Compositae | Leaves used in a mixed preparation | Diarrhea and dysentery | [4] | ||
| Schkuhria pinnata (Lam.) Kuntze ex Thell. | Compositae | Aerial parts | Diarrhea | [53] | ||
| Senecio mannii Hook.f. | Compositae | Whole plants- mixed with other plants | Diarrhea, arthritis, fracture and neuralgia | [4] | ||
| Tagetes minuta L. † | Compositae | Leaves used in a mixed preparation | Diarrhea and dysentery | [4] | ||
| Vernonia amygdalina Delile† | Compositae * | Leaves | Diarrhea, dysentery, pain | [52,64] | Writhing, formalin, and tail-flick tests [74] | Polyphenols and sesquiterpene lactones [75] |
| Vernonia kirungae R.E.Fr.† | Compositae | Leaves- mixed with stem of Musa sapientum | Diarrhea, arthritis, fracture, and neuralgia | [4] | ||
| Lagenaria abyssinica (Hook. f.) C. Jeffrey | Cucurbitaceae | Ground leaves mixed with several other species | Diarrhea | [4] | ||
| Mukia maderaspatana (L.) M.Roem. | Cucurbitaceae | Ground leaves mixed with several other species | Diarrhea | [4] | ||
| Juniperus phoenicea L. | Cupressaceae | Decoction of leaves | Diarrhea | [4] | ||
| Juniperus procera Hochst. ex Endl. | Cupressaceae | Leaves | Diarrhea | [64] | ||
| Cupressus lusitanica | Cupressaceae | Water extract from leaves of Vernonia amygdalina, Millettia ferruginea and Gomphpcarpus fruticosus; and roots of Juniperus procera, Cupressus lusitanica and Crepis rueppellii. | Diarrhea | [64] | ||
| Nephrodium filix-mas † | Dryopteridaceae | Rhizomes of ferns in a mixed preparation | Diarrhea/dysentery | [4] | ||
| Diospyros mespiliformis Hochst. Ex † | Ebenaceae | Leaves, unripeFruit, bark | DiarrheaMilk production | [61,76] | ||
| Jatropha zeyheri Sond. | Euphorbiaceae | Root decoctions | Diarrhea | [54,76] | Flavonoids, saponins, phorbo esters and triterpenoids | |
| Ricinus communis L.† | Euphorbiaceae | Oil- mixed with Trema orientalis (L.) Blume Cordyline terminalis whole plant mixed with other plants- ashes | Arthritis, fracture, and neuralgia | [4] | ||
| Pelargonium odoratissimum (L.) L'Hér. | Geraniaceae | Diarrhea | [53] | Flavonoids tannins, coumarins and phenolic acids | ||
| Pelargonium sidoides DC. † | Geraniaceae * | Diarrhea in horses | [54] | |||
| Pelargonium reniforme Curtis † | Geraniaceae * | Goat and cattle diarrhea, dysentery | [23,54] | Anthrocynins, coumarins, flavonoids, proanthrocynins and diterpene | ||
| Harungana madagascariensis Lam. ex Poir. | Hypericaceae * | Leaves mixed with other plants | Diarrhea | [4] | ||
| Hypericum perforatum | Hypericaceae * | Pods, aerial parts | Analgesic, psychomotor disturbances | [67,70,77] | Phenolics and hyperforin [70] | |
| Hypericum revolutum Vahl | Hypericaceae | Leaves mixed with other plants | Diarrhea | [4] | ||
| Crocosmia paniculata (Klatt) Goldblatt | Iridaceae | Corm | Bovine diarrhea | [53] | ||
| Watsonia densiflora Baker | Iridaceae | Corm | Calf diarrhea | [53] | ||
| Watsonia tabularis J.W.Mathews & L.Bolus | Iridaceae | Corm | Calf diarrhea | [78] | ||
| Clerodendrum myricoides R. Br. † | Lamiaceae * | Leaves used in a mixed formula with Sida rhombifolia L. leaves | Diarrhea and dysentery | [4] | ||
| Marrabium vulgare | Lamiaceae | Decoction | Diarrhea | Marrubin, choline, tannins, essential oils and glucosides | ||
| Plectranthus barbatus | Lamiaceae | Leaves mixed with other plants | Diarrhea | [4] | ||
| Pycnostachys erici-rosenii | Lamiaceae | Leaves mixed with other plants | Diarrhea | [4] | ||
| Rotheca myricoides (Hochst.) Steane & Mabb. | Lamiaceae | Root, bark | Cattle diarrhea | [79] | ||
| Ocimum lamiifolium Hochst. ex Benth. | Lamiaceae | Water extract of fresh leaves of Vernonia amygdalina and Clutia abyssinica; and root of Ocimum lamifolium | Diarrhea | [64] | ||
| Tetradenia riparia (Hochst.) Codd† | Lamiaceae | Whole plant or dried flowers-mixed with other plants | Diarrhea, aArthritis, fracture and neuralgia | [4] | ||
| Acasia ataxacantha DC. | Leguminosae | Bark/decoction | Diarrhea | [56] | ||
| Acacia karroo Hayne † | Leguminosae | Bark and leaves | Diarrhea (poultry, ruminants and pigs) | [53,65] | ||
| Acacia nilotica (L.) Willd. Ex | Leguminosae | Leaves | Diarrhea | [61] | ||
| Acacia polyacantha | Leguminosae * | Root | Body pain | [52,80] | ||
| Acasia senegal (L.) Willd. | Leguminosae | Rubber/ latex | Intestinal pain | [56] | ||
| Acasia raddiana; Acacia tortilis subsp. raddiana (Savi) Brenan | Leguminosae | Leaves | Diarrhea-camels | |||
| Calpurnia aurea † | Leguminosae * | Cattle diarrhea, dysentery | [54] | Quinolizidine | ||
| Cassia occidentalis L | Leguminosae * | Body pain (tonic ruminants) | [61] | |||
| Cassia siamea Lam. | Leguminosae | Leaves | Stomach pains | [61] | ||
| Ceratonia siliqua | Leguminosae | Diarrhea | ||||
| Dichrostachys glomerata | Leguminosae * | Leaf | Diarrhea and pain | [52] | Alkaloids, phenols and tannins | |
| Elephantorrhiza burkei Benth. †; Elephantorrhiza elephantina (Burch.) Skeels † | Leguminosae * | Aerial parts, roots and bulb | Abdominal pain/ diarrhea, dysentery, (horse and ruminants) | [53] | ||
| Indigofera spp | Leguminosae * | Whole plants/ roots | Gastrointestinal pain | [53] | ||
| Kotschya africana † | Leguminosae | Whole plant- mixed with other plants | Gastrointestinal pain, arthritis, fracture, neuralgia, rheumatism, sprain | [4] | ||
| Lonchocarpus laxiflorus | Leguminosae | Bark/decoction | Diarrhea | [56] | ||
| Millettia ferruginea (Hochst.) Bak. | Leguminosae | Leaves | Diarrhea | [64] | ||
| Parkia biglobosa € | Leguminosae * | Seeds, fruits, roots, bark/decoction | Pain and diarrhea | [56] | Writhing test- effective/ not effective in hot-plate [81] | |
| Phaseolus vulgaris L. | Leguminosae | Fruits | Diarrhea | [4] | ||
| Pterocarpus erinaceus Poir. | Leguminosae * | Bark of tillage | Diarrhea | [56] | Edema + writhing tests [82]; diarrhea, charcoal meal transit time [83] | |
| Peltophorum africanum Sond. † | Leguminosae * | Root and stem bark | Cattle diarrhea, dysentery, colic and pain | [54,84] | Flavonoids, coumarins, tannins gallic and chlorogenic acid, Flavonol glycosides and flavonol glucoside gallates | |
| Pterocarpus erinaceus Poir.† | Leguminosae * | Leaves, roots, bark | Diarrhea | [56] | ||
| Senna italica Mill. | Leguminosae * | Stem bark | Cattle diarrhea, | [54,76] | ||
| Taverniera abyssinica A.Rich. | Leguminosae * | Root | Pain | [64] | Hot plate, writhing [85] | Phytoalexins and isoflavonoids |
| Tephrosia vogelii Hook.f. † | Leguminosae | Whole plants used in a mixed preparation | Diarrhea, dysentery | [4] | ||
| Xeroderris stuhlmannii (Taub.) Mendonça & E.P. Sousa | Leguminosae | Bark | Abdominal pain | [56] | ||
| Strychnos henningsii Gilg | Loganiaceae * | Bark | Cattle diarrhea | [53] | ||
| Tapinanthus bangwensis (Engl. & K.Krause) Danser | Loranthaceae * | Leaves | Stomach pain | [52] | ||
| Lawsonia alba | Lythraceae | Diarrhea | Xanthones, triterpenoids and napthoquinones | |||
| Adansonia digitata L. † | Malvaceae * | Leaf/bark/fruit | Diarrhea, stomach pain: diarrhea (fruit) | [52,56] | Hot plate; human trial against diarrhea [86] | |
| Sida alba Forrsk † | Malvacea * | Leaves | Diarrhea, dysentery, pain | [57,58] | ||
| Sida rhombifolia L. † | Malvacea | Leaves used in a mixed formula with Clerodendrum myricoides R. Br. Leaves | Diarrhea and dysentery | [4] | ||
| Urena lobata L. | Malvacea | Leaves used in a mixed preparation | Diarrhea | [4] | ||
| Khaya senegalensis (Desv.) A.Juss.† | Meliaceae | Stem, bark | Abdominal pain, diarrhea and dysentery; feed supplements | [56,61] | ||
| Cissampelos mucronata A.Rich. † | Menispermaceae * | Whole plant- mixed with other plants, roots | Arthritis, fracture, neuralgia, rheumatism, sprain, pain, sedative | [4,52,87] | Alkaloids, sterols, triterpenes, tannins, carbohydrates, glycosides and flavonoids | |
| Cissampelos torulosa E.Mey. ex Harv. & Sond. † | Menispermaceae | Leaves | Diarrhea, dysentery | [57,58] | Cissampelos pareira leaves tested for anti- depressant effects in mice and rats | |
| Ficus thonningii Blume | Menispermaceae * | Crushed leaves mixed with stem barks of Myrica kandtiana | Diarrhea | [4] | ||
| Ficus exasperata Vahl | Moraceae | Crushed leaves mixed with stem barks of Myrica kandtiana | Diarrhea | [4] | ||
| Ensete ventricosum (Welw.) Cheesman | Musaceae | Leaves mixed with other plant leaves | Diarrhea | [4] | ||
| Musa sapientum L. † | Musaceae | Stem mixed with leaves of Vernonia kirungae R.E.Fr. | Arthritis, fracture, neuralgia | [4] | ||
| Myrica kandtiana | Myricaceae | Leaves, stem and bark used with Ficus spp in mixed preparations | Diarrhea | [4] | ||
| Psidium guajava L. † | Myrtaceae * | Leaves in a mixed formulation, leaves | Diarrhea, dysentery | [4,88] | ||
| Syzygium guineense | Myrtaceae * | Leaf, stem bark, root | Pain, sedation | [88] | ||
| Syzygium cordatum | Myrtaceae | Bark and leaves | Diarrhea | [57,58] | ||
| Nymphaea calliantha Conard. † | Nymphaeaceae | Leaves in a mixed preparation | Bloody stool and diarrhea. | [4] | ||
| Ximenia caffra Sond † | Olacaceae * | Leaves and root | Diarrhea and dysentery | [57,58] | ||
| Striga hermonthica (Delile) Benth. | Orobanchaceae | Whole plant/decoction | Diarrhea | [56] | ||
| Bridelia micrantha Baill † | Phyllanthaceae * | Root, bark and seeds | Pain, arthritis and diarrhea, | [57,58] | Castor-oil diarrhea, charcol meal anti-motility tests in rats [89] | |
| Bridelia micrantha (Hochst.) Baill. † | Phyllanthaceae * | Leaves in a mixed formulation | Diarrhea, dysentery | [4] | ||
| Clutia spp, Clutia pulchella L. | Peraceae * | Leaves | Painful joints | [84] | ||
| Piper capense L.f. | Piperaceae | Milk infusions ofleaves, stems and roots | Diarrhea, pain in calves | [4] | ||
| Pittosporum viridiflorum | Pittosporaceae | Stem, bark | Pain | [84] | Saponins and sesquiterpenoids | |
| Plumbago auriculata Lam. | Plumbaginaceae * | Roots | Cattle diarrhea | [53] | Naphthoquinone and plumbagin [84] | |
| Coix lacryma-jobi L. † | Poaceae | Roots in a mixed preparation | Diarrhea, dysentery | [4] | ||
| Protea caffra Meisn. | Poaceae | Root, bark (enema) | Bloody diarrhea in calves | [53,54] | ||
| Protea welwitschii Engl. † | Poaceae * | Root, bark | Dysentery, diarrhea in calves | [53] | ||
| Sorghum bicolor (L.) Moench | Poaceae * | Powder added to plant leaves mixture; germed seeds | Diarrhea, dysentery | [4,56] | ||
| Rhynchelytrum repens (Willd.) C.E.Hubb. † | Poaceae | Leaves used in mixed formula | Dysentery and diarrhea | [4] | ||
| Podocarpus falcatus (Thunb.) R. Br. ex Mirb.† | Podocarpaceae | Leaf | Canine distemper diarrhea | [24,53] | ||
| Ramalina farinacea (L.) Ach. | Ramalinaceae | Analgesic, anti-inflammatory | [56] | |||
| Ziziphus zeyheriana Sond. | Rhamnaceae | Root | Diarrhea | [65] | ||
| Prunus persica (L.) Stokes | Rosaceae | Root | Diarrhea in small ruminants | [24,53] | ||
| Cinchona ledgeriana (Howard) Bern.Moens ex Trimen † | Rubiaceae | Leaves mixed with other plant leaves; stem, barks used in a mixed decoction | Diarrhea, dysentery and diarrhea | [4] | ||
| Sarcocephalus latifolius (Sm.) Bruce latifolius | Rubiaceae | Roots/decoction | Diarrhea | [56] | ||
| Ptaeroxylon obliquum (Thunb.) Radlk. | Rutaceae * | Leaves, stem bark and root | Diarrhea, dysentery, arthritis and pain | [84] | Essential oil, resin, saponin, pyrogallol, tannins flavone and alkaloids, coumarins | |
| Hippobromus pauciflorus Radlk. † | Sapindaceae * | Bark, root and leaves | Diarrhea, dysentery, analgesic | [5,24,53] | ||
| Vitellaria paradoxa C. F. Gaertn. † | Sapotaceae | Leaves | Bloody diarrhea | [61] | ||
| Nicotiana tabacum L. | Solanaceae | Leaves mixed with other plant leaves | Diarrhea | [4] | ||
| Solanum panduriforme E. Mey. | Solanaceae * | Leaf infusions, fruit sap | Diarrhea | [58,65] | ||
| Withania somnifera (L.) Dunal | Solanaceae * | Roots | Diarrhea | [65] | Steroids; witherferin, choline, tropanaol, glycowithanolides, withanolides, withaferine and withasomnine [70,72] | |
| Waltheria indica L. | Sterculiaceae | Leaves | Diarrhea, tonic | [61] | ||
| Urtica doica L. | Urticaceae | Stem and leaves | Diarrhea, pain, rheumatism, inflammation | |||
| Pouzolzia mixta Solms | Urticaceae * | Root, stem and leaves | Diarrhea, dysentery | [57,58] | ||
| Lippia javanica (Burm. f.) Spreng. (E.A.) † | Verbenaceae * | Leaves | Dysentery and diarrhea | [57,58] | Pentacyclic triterpenoids, essential oil, amino acids, stearic and other acids | |
| Rhoicissus tridentata (L. f.)Wild & R.B. Drumm. | Vitaceae | Root, tubers and fruits | Ruminant diarrhea | [24,53,54] | Irioids, stilbenes, flavonoids and triterpenoids | |
| Balanites maughamaii | Zygophyllaceae | Leaves | Cattle diarrhea | [54,76] |
Blanks: Unknown or the existence of this information was not determined through literature search. However, for the majority the listed plant species the information is not known. † The extracts of these plant species are recommended for high throughput screening for bioactive agents to treat gastrointestinal (GI) disorders such as diarrhea, inflammation and chronic pain. These plants have potential for novel complementary drugs against GI disorders presenting with diarrhea, dysentery, and chronic pain and hence complementary usage with acupuncture and western medications. * Plant species under this family (same row) are used both in human (see Table 2) and veterinary care for GI ailments and pain management.