. Author manuscript; available in PMC: 2015 Jul 9.

Published in final edited form as: J Drug Issues. 2012 Oct 11;42(4):337–357. doi: 10.1177/0022042612461769

Table 3.

Associations Between Risk and Protective Factors and Regular Alcohol Use, Daily Cigarette Smoking, and Marijuana Use Among 12- to 15-Year-Olds in the United States and the Netherlands: Adjusted Odds Ratios^a

	Regular alcohol use			Daily cigarette smoking			Marijuana use
Risk and protective factors	US	NL	NL × RPF	US	NL	NL × RPF	US	NL	NL × RPF
Risk factors
Community disorganization	1.65^***	1.33^***	0.77^*	1.88^***	1.47^***	0.76^*	1.80^***	1.65^***	0.90
Perceived availability of hard drugs	1.94^***	1.46^***	0.75^*	1.93^***	1.64^***	0.85^*	1.85^***	1.68^***	0.93
Low neighborhood attachment	1.22^***	1.08^***	0.89	1.23^***	1.09^***	0.87	1.28^***	1.23^***	0.96
Family history of antisocial behavior	1.64^***	1.19^***	0.70^**	1.77^***	1.38^***	0.79^*	1.64^***	1.40^***	0.85^*
Parental attitudes favorable to alcohol use	1.89^***	2.19^***	1.15^*	1.69^***	1.50^***	0.88^*	1.54^***	1.53^***	0.99
Parental attitudes favorable to smoking	1.54^***	1.46^***	0.92	1.88^***	2.04^***	1.08	1.52^***	1.72^***	1.11^*
Parental attitudes favorable to marijuana use	1.54^***	1.30^***	0.83^*	1.63^***	1.37^***	0.82^*	1.71^***	1.59^***	0.92
Family conflict	1.60^***	1.40^***	0.85^*	1.66^***	1.45^***	0.88	1.54^***	1.54^***	0.99
Poor family management	2.11^***	1.54^***	0.72^*	2.04^***	1.43^***	0.69^**	2.09^***	1.74^***	0.83^**
Parental attitudes favorable to antisocial behavior	1.84^***	1.40^***	0.73^*	1.79^***	1.36^***	0.75^***	1.77^***	1.44^***	0.79^**
Low commitment to school	1.85^***	1.27^***	0.67^***	1.83^***	1.45^***	0.78^**	1.88^***	1.56^***	0.81^**
Academic failure – low grades	1.53^***	1.31^***	0.84^*	1.83^***	1.60^***	0.85^*	1.63^***	1.53^***	0.93
Academic failure – worse grades	1.73^***	1.25^***	0.70^*	2.13^***	1.52^***	0.71^*	1.88^***	1.46^***	0.76^**
Rebelliousness	2.59^***	1.87^***	0.70^*	2.78^***	1.91^***	0.69^*	2.54^***	2.18^***	0.84
Attitudes favorable to marijuana use	2.40^***	1.80^***	0.77^**	2.52^***	2.24^***	0.87^*	3.28^***	3.64^***	1.09
Attitudes favorable to hard drug use	1.68^***	1.28^***	0.75^**	1.66^***	1.38^***	0.83^*	1.70^***	1.45^***	0.85^**
Attitudes favorable to antisocial behavior	2.26^***	1.52^***	0.67^**	2.26^***	1.69^***	0.75^**	2.28^***	1.82^***	0.79^**
Peer use of marijuana	2.70^***	1.71^***	0.66^**	3.48^***	2.41^***	0.70^**	5.18^***	4.07^***	0.81
Peer use of hard drugs	1.83^***	1.41^***	0.76^**	2.03^***	1.61^***	0.80^**	1.97^***	1.75^***	0.89
Protective factors
Community rewards for prosocial behavior	0.67^***	0.90^***	1.36^*	0.62^***	0.86^***	1.40^*	0.62^***	0.77^***	1.24^*
Attachment to parents	0.66^***	0.73^***	1.14^*	0.64^***	0.64^***	1.00	0.63^***	0.57^***	0.93
Prosocial opportunities in the family	0.62^***	0.80^***	1.31^*	0.60^***	0.72^***	1.21^*	0.61^***	0.65^***	1.06
Family rewards for prosocial behavior	0.62^***	0.76^***	1.26^*	0.62^***	0.67^***	1.09	0.59^***	0.62^***	1.07
Rewards for prosocial behavior at school	0.61^***	0.82^***	1.30^*	0.62^***	0.82^***	1.35^**	0.60^***	0.72^***	1.17^**
Disapproval of cheating	0.41^***	0.62^***	1.43^**	0.42^***	0.62^***	1.48^**	0.41^***	0.53^***	1.26^**
Disapproval of stealing	0.46^***	0.70^***	1.53^**	0.45^***	0.70^***	1.58^**	0.45^***	0.64^***	1.44^**
Importance of honesty	0.58^***	0.80^***	1.42^**	0.57^***	0.77^***	1.36^**	0.56^***	0.71^***	1.29^***

Notes

p < .05

^**

p < .01

^***

p < .001.

Adjusted for year of data collection, student characteristics (age, gender, grade, and parental education), and community characteristics (population size, percentage of children in poverty, and intervention status).