. Author manuscript; available in PMC: 2015 Jul 9.

Published in final edited form as: J Drug Issues. 2012 Oct 11;42(4):337–357. doi: 10.1177/0022042612461769

Table 4.

Associations Between Risk and Protective Factors and Regular Alcohol Use, Daily Cigarette Smoking, And Marijuana Use Among 16- to 17-Year-Olds in the United States and the Netherlands: Adjusted Odds Ratios^a

	Regular alcohol use			Daily cigarette smoking			Marijuana use
Risk and protective factors	US	NL	NL × RPF	US	NL	NL × RPF	US	NL	NL × RPF
Risk factors
Community disorganization	1.33^***	1.15^***	0.82	1.38^***	1.29^***	0.92	1.44^***	1.37^***	0.91
Perceived availability of hard drugs	1.83^***	1.38^***	0.74^**	1.75^***	1.53^***	0.86	1.80^***	1.69^***	0.93
Low neighborhood attachment	1.18^***	0.95	0.81^*	1.27^***	1.03	0.79^**	1.28^***	1.17^***	0.90
Family history of antisocial behavior	1.46^***	1.08^*	0.71^**	1.64^***	1.24^***	0.75^**	1.46^***	1.33^***	0.89
Parental attitudes favorable to alcohol use	1.85^***	2.37^***	1.25^*	1.49^***	1.29^***	0.85	1.52^***	1.25^***	0.83
Parental attitudes favorable to smoking	1.49^***	1.48^***	0.94	2.01^***	2.31^***	1.13	1.55^***	1.57^***	0.98
Parental attitudes favorable to marijuana use	1.52^***	1.39^***	0.90	1.50^***	1.41^***	0.93	1.72^***	1.63^***	0.96
Family conflict	1.34^***	1.25^***	0.91	1.32^***	1.29^***	0.97	1.34^***	1.37^***	0.99
Poor family management	1.71^***	1.41^***	0.82^*	1.60^***	1.17^***	0.71^***	1.66^***	1.50^***	0.91
Parental attitudes favorable to antisocial behavior	1.57^***	1.20^***	0.75^*	1.46^***	1.21^***	0.86	1.47^***	1.19^***	0.82
Low commitment to school	1.95^***	1.30^***	0.66^***	1.81^***	1.44^***	0.78^**	1.90^***	1.67^***	0.87
Academic failure – low grades	1.37^***	1.22^***	0.87	1.69^***	1.50^***	0.90	1.48^***	1.31^***	0.89
Academic failure – worse grades	1.36^***	1.17^***	0.82^*	1.72^***	1.25^***	0.73^**	1.41^***	1.22^***	0.83
Rebelliousness	1.95^***	1.58^***	0.79^**	1.87^***	1.67^***	0.91	1.93^***	1.74^***	0.91
Attitudes favorable to marijuana use	2.54^***	1.92^***	0.76^**	2.77^***	2.26^***	0.81	4.16^***	3.98^***	0.94
Attitudes favorable to hard drug use	1.64^***	1.27^***	0.77^**	1.65^***	1.44^***	0.88	1.84^***	1.50^***	0.82^**
Attitudes favorable to antisocial behavior	2.05^***	1.43^***	0.69^**	1.88^***	1.53^***	0.86	1.94^***	1.55^***	0.83
Peer use of marijuana	2.59^***	1.67^***	0.65^**	2.76^***	2.32^***	0.83^*	5.12^***	3.94^***	0.74
cPeer use of hard drugs	1.82^***	1.52^***	0.81^*	2.05^***	1.83^***	0.88^*	2.05^***	1.82^***	0.88
Protective factors
Community rewards for prosocial behavior	0.75^***	0.94	1.24^*	0.72^***	0.93	1.29^**	0.68^***	0.78^***	1.16
Attachment to parents	0.77^***	0.86^***	1.16	0.74^***	0.77^***	1.06	0.73^***	0.69^***	0.97
Prosocial opportunities in the family	0.74^***	0.90^**	1.25^*	0.71^***	0.82^***	1.16	0.71^***	0.71^***	1.01
Family rewards for prosocial behavior	0.74^***	0.86^***	1.21	0.71^***	0.80^***	1.14	0.69^***	0.71^***	1.05
Rewards for prosocial behavior at school	0.76^***	0.82^***	1.11	0.74^***	0.86^***	1.13	0.76^***	0.87^***	1.12
Disapproval of cheating	0.51^***	0.64^***	1.24^*	0.65^***	0.76^***	1.16	0.53^***	0.69^***	1.26^**
Disapproval of stealing	0.54^***	0.74^***	1.36^**	0.59^***	0.84^***	1.38^**	0.52^***	0.75^***	1.40^**
Importance of honesty	0.66^***	0.89^***	1.37^**	0.69^***	0.89^**	1.28^**	0.65^***	0.86^***	1.33^***

Notes:

p < .05

^**

p < .01

^***

p < .001.

Adjusted for year of data collection, student characteristics (age, gender, grade, and parental education), and community characteristics (population size, percentage of children in poverty, and intervention status).