. Author manuscript; available in PMC: 2015 Jul 9.

Published in final edited form as: J Drug Issues. 2012 Oct 11;42(4):337–357. doi: 10.1177/0022042612461769

Table 5.

Associations Between Risk and Protective Factors and Hard Drug Use, No Drug Use, and Delinquency Among 12- To 15-Year-Olds in the United States and the Netherlands: Adjusted Odds Ratios^a

	Hard drug use			No drug use			Delinquency
Risk and protective factors	US	NL	NL × RPF	US	NL	NL × RPF	US	NL	NL × RPF
Risk factors
Community disorganization	2.27^***	2.32^***	1.03	0.58^***	0.73^***	1.30^*	1.41^***	1.32^***	0.93^*
Perceived availability of hard drugs	2.58^***	2.65^***	1.07	0.53^***	0.65^***	1.20^*	1.37^***	1.35^***	0.96
Low neighborhood attachment	1.29^***	1.18	1.00	0.77^***	0.92^***	1.19	1.24^***	1.09^***	0.87^*
Family history of antisocial behavior	1.93^***	1.61^***	0.80	0.60^***	0.79^***	1.35^**	1.34^***	1.19^***	0.88^**
Parental attitudes favorable to alcohol use	1.71^***	1.79^***	1.06	0.56^***	0.50^***	0.88^*	1.25^***	1.24^***	0.96
Parental attitudes favorable to smoking	1.65^***	2.04^***	1.24	0.59^***	0.60^***	1.01	1.19^***	1.23^***	1.02
Parental attitudes favorable to marijuana use	1.70^***	1.78^***	1.04	0.58^***	0.73^***	1.28^*	1.19^***	1.15^***	0.96
Family conflict	1.85^***	1.69^***	0.94	0.62^***	0.69^***	1.13^*	1.42^***	1.27^***	0.88^*
Poor family management	2.51^***	2.25^***	0.94	0.47^***	0.66^***	1.43^**	1.52^***	1.29^***	0.85^*
Parental attitudes favorable to antisocial behavior	2.00^***	1.97^***	0.97	0.50^***	0.71^***	1.45^**	1.33^***	1.30^***	0.98
Low commitment to school	2.01^***	1.72^***	0.85	0.53^***	0.73^***	1.43^**	1.35^***	1.23^***	0.90^**
Academic failure – low grades	1.61^***	1.53^***	0.95	0.61^***	0.71^***	1.18^*	1.31^***	1.19^***	0.91^*
Academic failure – worse grades	1.79^***	1.46^***	0.85	0.53^***	0.75^***	1.46^**	1.36^***	1.13^***	0.84^*
Rebelliousness	3.42^***	2.58^***	0.73	0.39^***	0.51^***	1.36^*	1.92^***	1.69^***	0.88^**
Attitudes favorable to marijuana use	2.58^***	2.59^***	1.06	0.33^***	0.48^***	1.43^***	1.44^***	1.43^***	0.96
Attitudes favorable to hard drug use	1.93^***	2.04^***	1.07	0.57^***	0.74^***	1.34^*	1.23^***	1.20^***	0.97
Attitudes favorable to antisocial behavior	2.66^***	2.39^***	0.95	0.41^***	0.61^***	1.51^**	1.62^***	1.53^***	0.96
Peer use of marijuana	3.44^***	2.48^***	0.78	0.31^***	0.49^***	1.54^**	1.68^***	1.47^***	0.86^**
Peer use of hard drugs	2.91^***	2.15^***	0.77	0.51^***	0.64^***	1.25^*	1.40^***	1.26^***	0.89^***
Protective factors
Community rewards for prosocial behavior	0.58^***	0.83^*	1.37	1.55^***	1.12^***	0.72^*	0.74^***	0.90^***	1.24^**
Attachment to parents	0.56^***	0.54^***	0.91	1.56^***	1.44^***	0.91	0.72^***	0.78^***	1.10^*
Prosocial opportunities in the family	0.50^***	0.59^***	1.11	1.64^***	1.31^***	0.79^*	0.71^***	0.82^***	1.17^*
Family rewards for prosocial behavior	0.51^***	0.58^***	1.12	1.63^***	1.38^***	0.83^*	0.72^***	0.80^***	1.13^*
Rewards for prosocial behavior at school	0.50^***	0.50^***	1.00	1.61^***	1.24^***	0.78^**	0.74^***	0.84^***	1.16^*
Disapproval of cheating	0.36^***	0.54^***	1.44	2.39^***	1.67^***	0.72^**	0.55^***	0.68^***	1.22^**
Disapproval of stealing	0.39^***	0.54^***	1.40	2.16^***	1.45^***	0.66^**	0.61^***	0.74^***	1.22^**
Importance of honesty	0.48^***	0.63^***	1.29	1.73^***	1.27^***	0.73^**	0.69^***	0.86^***	1.25^**

Notes:

p < .05

^**

p < .01

^***

p < .001.

Adjusted for year of data collection, student characteristics (age, gender, grade, and parental education), and community characteristics (population size, percentage of children in poverty, and intervention status).