. Author manuscript; available in PMC: 2015 Jul 9.

Published in final edited form as: J Drug Issues. 2012 Oct 11;42(4):337–357. doi: 10.1177/0022042612461769

Table 6.

Associations Between Risk and Protective Factors and Hard Drug Use, No Drug Use, and Delinquency Among 16- To 17-Year-Olds in the United States and the Netherlands: Adjusted Odds Ratios^a

	Hard drug use			No drug use			Delinquency
Risk and protective factors	US	NL	NL × RPF	US	NL	NL × RPF	US	NL	NL × RPF
Risk factors
Community disorganization	1.80^***	1.95^***	1.00	0.73^***	0.82^***	1.15	1.35^***	1.27^***	0.94
Perceived availability of hard drugs	2.81^***	2.23^***	0.76	0.56^***	0.67^***	1.21^*	1.38^***	1.37^***	0.99
Low neighborhood attachment	1.32^***	1.64^***	1.23	0.80^***	1.00	1.25^**	1.19^***	1.10^***	0.91
Family history of antisocial behavior	1.57^***	1.64^***	1.03	0.67^***	0.85^***	1.30^**	1.30^***	1.18^***	0.90^*
Parental attitudes favorable to alcohol use	1.54^***	1.20	0.78	0.57^***	0.46^***	0.82^**	1.28^***	1.14^***	0.89^**
Parental attitudes favorable to smoking	1.58^***	2.16^***	1.36	0.57^***	0.53^***	0.99	1.21^***	1.28^***	1.06
Parental attitudes favorable to marijuana use	1.62^***	1.87^***	1.16	0.59^***	0.62^***	1.07	1.24^***	1.19^***	0.97
Family conflict	1.41^***	1.60^***	1.09	0.73^***	0.77^***	1.07	1.31^***	1.18^***	0.89^**
Poor family management	1.86^***	1.64^***	0.85	0.58^***	0.71^***	1.20^*	1.43^***	1.16^***	0.82^**
Parental attitudes favorable to antisocial behavior	1.58^***	1.60^***	1.03	0.60^***	0.80^***	1.35	1.28^***	1.21^***	0.96
Low commitment to school	2.16^***	1.82^***	0.83	0.50^***	0.68^***	1.40^**	1.41^***	1.31^***	0.94
Academic failure – low grades	1.63^***	1.28^*	0.78	0.66^***	0.74^***	1.15	1.31^***	1.16^***	0.90
Academic failure – worse grades	1.44^***	1.12	0.75	0.68^***	0.82^***	1.24^**	1.31^***	1.07^***	0.82^**
Rebelliousness	2.32^***	2.21^***	0.94	0.51^***	0.58^***	1.14	1.77^***	1.59^***	0.90
Attitudes favorable to marijuana use	2.93^***	3.22^***	1.12	0.28^***	0.41^***	1.46^**	1.57^***	1.46^***	0.94
Attitudes favorable to hard drug use	2.13^***	2.20^***	1.03	0.53^***	0.72^***	1.37^**	1.30^***	1.22^***	0.94
Attitudes favorable to antisocial behavior	2.23^***	1.81^***	0.84	0.46^***	0.62^***	1.33^**	1.59^***	1.50^***	0.98
Peer use of marijuana	3.63^***	2.67^***	0.74	0.33^***	0.48^***	1.44^***	1.73^***	1.51^***	0.87^**
Peer use of hard drugs	3.12^***	3.29^***	1.02	0.51^***	0.52^***	1.06	1.44^***	1.37^***	0.95
Protective factors
Community rewards for prosocial behavior	0.75^***	0.79	1.06	1.37^***	1.10^***	0.82	0.79^***	0.90^***	1.14
Attachment to parents	0.66^***	0.57^***	1.09	1.36^***	1.25^***	0.91	0.80^***	0.83^***	1.04
Prosocial opportunities in the family	0.66^***	0.68^***	1.09	1.40^***	1.17^***	0.84	0.78^***	0.85^***	1.07
Family rewards for prosocial behavior	0.59^***	0.63^***	1.11	1.39^***	1.24^***	0.89	0.76^***	0.83^***	1.10
Rewards for prosocial behavior at school	0.59^***	0.69^***	1.20	1.34^***	1.21^***	0.91	0.78^***	0.85^***	1.08
Disapproval of cheating	0.55^***	0.77^***	1.36	1.88^***	1.56^***	0.86	0.60^***	0.74^***	1.20^**
Disapproval of stealing	0.48^***	0.51^***	1.07	1.94^***	1.35^***	0.72^**	0.61^***	0.74^***	1.18^**
Importance of honesty	0.62^***	0.67^***	1.10	1.55^***	1.15^***	0.74^**	0.73^***	0.90^***	1.22^**

Notes:

p < .05

^**

p < .01

^***

p < .001.

Adjusted for year of data collection, student characteristics (age, gender, grade, and parental education), and community characteristics (population size, percentage of children in poverty, and intervention status).