Skip to main content
. Author manuscript; available in PMC: 2015 Jul 13.
Published in final edited form as: Perspect Psychol Sci. 2007 Dec;2(4):313–345. doi: 10.1111/j.1745-6916.2007.00047.x

TABLE 2.

Personality Traits and Mortality

Study N Outcome Length of study Controls Predictors Outcome Est. ra
Allison et al., 2003 101 survivors of head and
neck cancer		 Mortality 1 year Age, disease stage,
cohabitation status		 High Optimism OR = 1.12 (1.01, 1.24) ror = −.22
Almada et al., 1991 1,871 members of the
Western Electric Study		 All-cause mortality 25 years Age, blood pressure,
smoking, cholesterol,
alcohol consumption		 High Neuroticism
High Cynicism		 RR = 1.20 (1.00, 1.40)
RR = 1.4 (1.2, 1.7)		 rrr = .05
rrr = .09
Barefoot, Dahlstrom, & Williams, 1983 255 medical students All-cause mortality 25 years High Hostility p = .005 re = .18
Barefoot, Dodge, Peterson, Dahlstrom, & Williams, 1989 128 law Students 29 years Age High Hostility p = .012 re = .22
Barefoot, Larsen, von der Lieth, & Schroll, 1995 730 residents of Glostrup
born in 1914		 All-cause mortality 27 years Age, sex, blood pressure,
smoking, triglycerid, FEV		 High Hostility RR = 1.36 (1.06, 1.75) rrr = .09
Barefoot et al., 1998 100 Older men and women All-cause mortality 14 years Sex, age High Trust RR = 0.46 (0.24, 0.91)
p < .03		 rrr = −.23
re = −.22
Barefoot et al., 1987 500 members of the second
Duke longitudinal study		 All-cause mortality 15 years Age, sex, cholesterol levels,
smoking, physician ratings
of health		 Suspiciousness p = .02 re = .10
Boyle et al., 2005 1,328 Duke University
Medical Center patients		 All-cause mortality 15 years Sex, age, tobacco
consumption,
hypertension,
hyperlipidemia, number of
coronary arteries narrowed,
left ventricular ejection
fraction, artery bypass
surgery		 High Hostility HR = 1.25 (1.06, 1.47)
p < .007		 rhr = .07
re = .07
Boyle et al., 2004 936 Duke University
Medical Center patients		 All-cause mortality 15 years Sex, age, tobacco
consumption,
hypertension,
hyperlipidemia, number of
coronary arteries narrowed,
left ventricular ejection
fraction, artery bypass
surgery		 High Hostility HR = 1.28 (1.06, 1.55)
p <. 02		 rhr = .08
re = .08
Christensen et al., 2002 174 chronic renal
insufficiency patients		 Mortality 4 years Age, diabetic status,
hemoglobin		 High Conscientiousness HR = 0.94, B = −.066
(.03)
p < .05		 rB = −.17
re = −.15
High Neuroticism HR = 1.05, B = .047
(.023)
p <. 05		 rhr = .15
re = .15
Danner et al, 2001 180 nuns Longevity 63 years Age, education, linguistic
ability		 High Positive Emotion
(sentences)
High Positive Emotion
(words)		 HR = 2.50 (1.20, 5.30)
p < .01
HR = 3.20 (1.50, 6.80)
p < .01		 rhr = .18
re = .19
rhr = .22
re = .19
Different Positive Emotions HR = 4.30 (1.70,
10.40)
p < .01		 rhr = .24
re = .19
Denollet et al, 1996 303 CHD patients Mortality 8 years CHD, age, social
alienation, depression, use
of benzodiazepines		 Type D personalityb HR = 4.10 (1.90, 8.80)
p = .0004		 rhr = .21
re = .20
Everson et al., 1997 2,125 men from the Kuopio
Eschemic Heart Disease
Risk Factor Study		 All-cause mortality 9 years Age, SES Cynical distrust HR = 1.97 (1.26, 3.09) rhr = .06
Friedman et al., 1993 1,178 members of the
Terman Lifecycle Study		 Longevity 71 years Sex, IQ High Conscientiousness HR = .33, B = −1.11
(0.37)
p < .01		 rhr = .09
re = .08
High Cheerfulnessc HR = 1.21, B = .19
(.07)
p < .05		 rhr = −.08
re = −.06
Giltay, Geleijnse, Zitman, Hoekstra, & Schouten, 2004 397 men and 418 women of
the Arnhem Elderly Study		 All-cause mortality 9 years Age, smoking, alcohol,
education, activity level,
SES, and marital status		 Dispositional optimism Men’s HR = 0.58 (0.37,
0.91)
p = .01		 rhr = −.12
re = −.13
Women’s HR = 0.80
(0.51–1.25)
p = .39		 rhr = −.05
re = −.04
Grossarth-Maticek, Bastianns, & Kanazir, 1985 1,335 inhabitants of
Crvenka, Yugoslavia		 Mortality 10 years Age High Rationalityd p < .001 re = .09
Hearn, Murray, & Luepker, 1989 1,313 University of
Minnesota students		 All-cause mortality 33 years Age High Hostility p = .72 re = .01
Hirokawa, Nagata, Takatsuka, & Shimizu, 2004 12,417 males and 14,133
females of the Takayama
Study		 7 years Age, smoking, marital
status, BMI, exercise,
alcohol, education, and
number of children		 High Rationalityd Men’s HR = 0.96 (0.83,
1.09)
Women’s HR = 0.82,
(0.70, 0.96)
p < .05		 rhr = −.01
rhr = −.02
re = −.02
Hollis, Connett, Stevens, & Greenlick, 1990 12,866 men from the
Multiple Risk Factor
Intervention Trial		 All-cause mortality 6 years Study group assignment,
age, cigarettes, blood
pressure, cholesterol		 High Type A personality RR = 0.94 (0.89, 0.99)
p < .01		 rhr = −.02
re = −.02
Iribarren et al., 2005 5,115 members of the
CARDIA study		 Non-AIDS, non-
homicide-related
mortality		 16 years Age, sex, race High Hostility RR = 2.02 (1.07, 3.81) rrr = .03
Kaplan et al, 1994 2,464 men from the Kuopio
Eschemic Heart Disease
Risk Factor Study		 All-cause mortality 6 years Age, income Shyness HR = 1.01 (0.63, 1.62) rhr = .00
Korten et al., 1999 897 subjects aged 70 years
and older		 Mortality 4 years Age, sex, general health,
ADLs, illness, blood
pressure, Symbol-Letter
Modalities Test, MMSE		 High Neuroticism HR = 0.53 (0.31, 0.90) rhr = −.08
Kuskenvuo et al., 1988 3,750 Finnish male twins All-cause mortality 3 years Age High Hostility RR = 2.98 (1.31, 6.77) rrr = .04
Maruta, Colligan, Malinchoc, & Offard, 2000 839 patients from the Mayo
Clinic		 All-cause mortality 29 years Sex, age, expected survival Pessimism HR = 1.20 (1.04, 1.38)
p = .01		 rhr = .09
re = .09
Maruta et al, 1993 620 from the Mayo Clinic All-cause mortality 20 years Age, sex, hypertension,
weight		 High Hostility p = .069 re = .07
McCarron, Gunnell, Harrison, Okasha, & Davey-Smith, 2003 8,385 former male students All-cause mortality 41 years 25 years Smoking, father’s SES,
BMI, maternal and paternal
vital status		 Mental instability RR = 2.05 (1.36–3.09)
p < .01		 rrr = .04
re = .03
McCranie, Watkins, Brandsma, & Sisson, 1986 478 physicians All-cause mortality 25 years High Hostility p = .789 re = −.01
Murberg, Bru, & Aarsland, 2001 119 heart failure patients Mortality 2 years Age, sex, disease severity Neuroticism HR = 1.140 (1.027,
1.265)
p = .01		 rhr = .23
re = .24
Osler et al, 2003 7,308 members of Project
Metropolit in Copenhagen,
Denmark		 All-cause mortality 49 years IQ, birth weight, SES Creativity HR = 1.17 (0.89, 1.54) rhr = .01
C. Peterson, Seligman, Yurko, Martin, & Friedman, 1998 1,179 members of the
Terman Lifecycle Study		 Mortality 51 Years Global pessimism OR = 1.26, p < .01 re = .08
Schulz et al., 1996 238 cancer patients Cancer mortality 8 months Site of cancer, physical
symptoms, age		 Pessimism OR = 1.07, B = .07
(.05)		 rB = .08
Pessimism × Age
interaction		 OR = 0.88, B = −.12
(.06),
p < .05		 rB = −11
re = .13
Surtees, Wainwright, Luben, Day, & Khaw, 2005 20,550 members of the
EPIC-Norfolk study (8,950
men and 11,600 women)		 Mortality 6 years Age, disease, cigarette
smoking history		 Hostility Men’s RR = 1.06 (0.99,
1.14)
Women’s RR = 1.00
(.91, 1.09)		 rrr = .02

rrr = .00
Surtees, Wainwright, Luben, Khaw, & Day, 2003 18,248 members of the
EPIC-Norfolk study		 Mortality 6 years Age, disease, social class,
cigarette smoking history		 Strong sense of coherence RR = 0.76 (0.65, 0.87)
p < .0001 (taken from
abstract)		 rhr = −.03
re = −.03
Weiss & Costa, 2005e 1,076 members of the
Medicare Primary and
Consumer-Directed Care
Demonstration		 All-cause mortality 5 years Gender, age, education,
diabetic status,
cardiovascular disease,
functional limitations, self-
rated health, cigarette
smoking, depression,
Neuroticism,
Agreeableness		 Conscientiousness HR = 0.51 (0.31, 0.85)
p < .05		 rhr = −.08
re = −.06
Gender, age, education
diabetic status,
cardiovascular disease,
functional limitations, self-
rated health, cigarette
smoking, depression,
Conscientiousness,
Agreeableness		 Neuroticism HR = 0.99 (0.97, 1.00)
p < .05		 rhr = −.04
re = −.06
Gender, age, education,
diabetic status,
cardiovascular disease,
functional limitations, self-
rated health, cigarette
smoking, depression,
Neuroticism,
Conscientiousness		 Agreeableness HR = 0.99 (0.98, 1.00) rhr = −.06
Wilson et al., 2003 851 members of the
Religious Orders Study		 All-cause mortality 5 years Age, sex, education, health Trait anxiety RR = 1.04 (0.99, 1.09)
p = .01 (unadjusted)		 rrr = .05
re = .09
Trait anger RR = 1.03 (0.95, 1.12)
p = .64 (unadjusted)		 rrr= .02
re = .02
Wilson et al., 2005 6,158 members (aged 65
years and older) of the
Chicago Health and Aging
Project		 All-cause mortality 6 years Age, sex, race, education Neuroticism

Extraversion		 RR = 1.016 (1.010,
1.020)
RR = 0.984 (0.978,
0.991)		 rrr= .07

rrr = −.05
Wilson et al., 2004 883 members of the
Religious Orders Study		 All-cause mortality 5 years Age, gender, education,
remaining personality traits		 Neuroticism RR = 1.04 (1.02, 1.08)
p < .02 (unadjusted)		 rrr= .12
re = .09
Extraversion RR = 0.96 (0.94, 0.99)
p < .001 (unadjusted)		 rrr= −.08
re = −.11
Openness RR = 1.005 (0.970,
1.040)
p = .014		 rrr= .01
re = .08
Agreeableness RR = 0.964 (0.930,
1.000)
p = .011		 rrr= −.06
re = −.09
Conscientiousness RR = 0.968 (0.94,
0.99)
p < .001		 rrr= −.07
re = −.11

Note. Confidence intervals are given in parentheses. HR = hazard ratio; RR = relative risk ratio; OR = odds ratio; rrr = correlation estimated from the rate ratio; rhr = correlation estimated from the hazard ratio; ror = correlation estimated from the odds ratio; rB = correlation estimated from a beta weight and standard error; re = requivalent (correlation estimated from the reported p value and sample size); FEV = forced expiratory volume; CHD = coronary heart disease; SES =socioeconomic status; BMI =body-ass index; ADLs =activities of daily living; MMSE =Mini Mental State Examination.

a

The direction of the correlation was derived by choosing a positive pole for each dimension (high Extraversion, Agreeableness, Conscientiousness, Neuroticism, and Openness) and assuming that each dimension, with the exception of Neuroticism, would be negatively related to mortality in its positive manifestation.

b

Type D personality was categorized as a Neuroticism measure as it correlates more consistently with high Neuroticism (De Fruyt & Denollet, 2002), though it should be noted that it has strong correlations with low Extraversion, low Agreeableness, and low Conscientiousness.

c

On the basis of the correlations presented in Martin and Friedman (2000), cheerfulness was categorized as a measure of Agreeableness.

d

Rationality was not categorized into the Big Five because it measures suppression of aggression, which does not easily fall into one of the five broad domains.

e

The discrepancy in the Hazard ratios results from the fact that the Neuroticism scores were continuous and the Conscientiousness scores were trichotomized.