Common causes of ToxAKI following poisoning or snake envenomation in LDC
| Most common cause | Case fatality | AKI incidence | References |
|---|---|---|---|
| Paraquat | 40–50% | >50% | 6,8,9 |
| Glyphosate | 2–30% | 15–25%* | 10,11,77 |
| Propanil | 11% | 8%* | 12 |
| Chlorphenoxy herbicides (MCPA) | 5% | 4%* | 13–15, 159 |
| Paraphenylene-diamine dye | 20–30% | 10–50% | 26,160,161 |
| Aluminium phosphide | 10–40% | 15–25% | 17,162 |
| Oxalic acid + potassium permanganate | 5–25% | 55%* | 18 |
| Gloriosa superba | 6% | 25%* | |
| Cleistanthus collinus | 30% | 15% | 21,22 |
| Herbal medicines (Aloe capensis, Aristolochia clematitis, Callilepis laureola, Catha edulis, Colchicum autumnale, Euphorbia matabalensis, Securidacea longepedunculata) | –† | –† | 26,163 |
| Snake envenoming‡ | |||
| Russell's viper | 1–20 % | 10–40% | 23, 164–166 |
| Hump-nosed pit viper | <1% | 5–10% | 65,167,168 |
| Saw-scaled vipers | <1% | 2–4% | 25,169,170 |
| Bothrops | 1% | 1.6%–38.5% | 32,171 |
| Crotalus species | 2% | 10%–29% | 32 |
*
Unpublished data obtained from South Asian Clinical Toxicology Research Collaboration database.
†
Regional and species specific variation; only selected species with data on AKI incidence are listed.