Table 1.
Neural responses to infant and child faces.
| Study | Participants (Age; N: M/F) | Face age | Stimuli | Design | Face duration | Paradigm | Contrasts | Findings: activated brain regions (Brodmann area) | Corrections |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| FUNCTIONAL MAGNETIC RESONANCE IMAGING (fMRI) STUDIES | |||||||||
| Bartels and Zeki, 2004 | Healthy mothers (27–49 years; 20:0/20) | 9 months to 6 years | Child face pictures | Block | 2.5 s | View | Own > acquainted child | Middle INS (14)* Dorsal ACC (24)* Ventral ACC (24) dorsal CAU* medial PUT/GP* Lateral THA R SNi* Lateral OFC |
p < 0.001 (uncorrected)* p <0.05 (SVC corrected) |
| Acquainted > own child | STS (39, 40)* PCC (29, 30)* Medial PCU (7/31)* MTG (21)* AMY* |
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| (Own > acquainted child) > (loved partner > friends) | Lateral OFC | ||||||||
| Leibenluft et al., 2004 | Healthy mothers (20–40 years; 7:0/7) | 5–12 years | Pictures (friend, unfamiliar child, and unfamiliar adult) | Event | 1.5 s | One-back memory | Own > familiar child | L ACC (32) L preCG SFG (6) L pSTS (39) R STG (22) MTG (21) R PCC (23) R PCU (31) L SMG (40) R AMY L INS THA GP R PUT Cerebellum |
p < 0.025 (uncorrected) |
| Familiar > unfamiliar children | R ACC (32) R SFG (8) MFG (46/9/47) L posterior OFC (11) L pSTS (39) R MTG (21) L PCC-PCU (39) SMG (40) IPS (40) R MOG (18) R FFG (37) L AMY INS THA L CAU Cerebellum |
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| Unfamiliar children > unfamiliar adults | L posterior OFC (11) R pSTS (39) L MTG (21) L PCC-PCU (23/31) R SMG (40) L FFG (37) L INS R THA |
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| Nitschke et al., 2004 | Healthy mothers (-; 6: 0/6) | 3–5 months | Happy faces neutral images | 30-s block design | 6 s | Mood rating | Own infants > baseline (blank screen) | Lateral OFC (all 6 subjects | p < 0.05 (uncorrected) |
| Unfamiliar infants > baseline | Lateral OFC (only 2 subjects) | * p < 0.001 (corrected) | |||||||
| Own > unfamiliar infants | Lateral OFC (11/47)* Cerebellum* |
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| Unfamiliar > own infants | ATC (20/21) * | ||||||||
| Ranote et al., 2004 | Healthy mothers (19–35 years; 10: 0/10) | 4–8 months | Video stimuli | Block | 40s | View | Infants > neutral | Cerebellum MOG (19) L MTG (21/37/39) |
p < 0.001 (uncorrected) |
| STG (38) postCG (4) |
*p < 0.05 (SVC corrected) | ||||||||
| Own > unknown infants | R MOG (19) L AMY* |
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| Unknown > own infants | lateral OFC (47) R MTG (21) L PCU (18) L postCG (7) |
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| Noriuchi et al., 2008 | Healthy mothers (31.1 ± 2.2 years; 13:0/13) | 16.5 ± 3.8 months | Video stimuli (smile, cry) | Block | 32 s | View | Own > other infant | OFC (47)* R MTG (39) R anterior INS* L PCC (30) |
p < 0.001, (uncorrected) |
| L THA* L PUT |
* p < 0.05 (FWE corrected) | ||||||||
| Other > own infant | R STG (22) L IPS (40) L PCU (7) L FFG (36) L HIPP (37) PUT* |
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| Own infant: separation > play situation | SL CAU* IPS (40) L PCC (31) L SNi* R MTG (21) L OFC (47) PCU (7/31) PREC (4) R ACC (32) SFG (6) STG (22/39/42) STS (21/22) THA* |
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| own infant: play > separation situation | R MTG (22/41) SMG preCG (4) L hypothalamus* |
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| Strathearn et al., 2008 | Healthy first-time mothers (20–42 years; 28:0/28) | 5–10 months | Baby face pictures (happy, neutral, sad) | Event | 2 s | View | Own > unknown baby | L lateral OFC (47) R preCG (4) postCG MTG (21/38) STG (22/21) PUT dorsal CAU THA Lateral superior AMY HIPP (36) INS ACC (24/32) MCC (24) PCC (31/17) VTA SNi Cerebellum |
p < 0.05 (FDR corrected) |
| Own > unknown happy infant faces | PUT L SNi R THA L AMY |
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| Own > unknown neutral infant faces | R PUT R medial dorsal/ventrolateral THA L dorsal PUT |
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| Glocker et al., 2009b | Healthy mothers (20–28 year; 16:0/16) | 7–13 months | Baby schema pictures (high, low, original) | Event | 3 s | Cuteness rating | Infant faces > cross | THA INS (13) SFG (6) Cerebellum PCU (7) postCG (2) preCG (6) |
p < 0.05 (FWE corrected) |
| High baby schema > unmanipulated & low baby schema | L ACC L PCU L FFG R NAcc |
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| Caria et al., 2012 | Healthy adult non-parents (28.06 ± 5.66 years; 16:7/9) | – | Infant and adult human and animal face pictures | Event | 4 s | View | Infant > adult | SMA (6) FFG (37/19) preCG (6) MCC (31/24) L anterior INS (48) THA |
p < 0.01 (FWE corrected) |
| Montoya et al., 2012 | Healthy nulliparous women (19–29 years; 17:0/17) | 5–10 months | Unknown infant face pictures (happy, sad, neutral) | Event | 1 s | One-back memory | Happy > neutral | L OFC (11) | p < 0.05 (FWE corrected) |
| Neutral > happy | R STG (22) L INS (13) L preCG (4) |
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| Sad > neutral | R PCU (31) R MTG (39) L preCG (6) R SFG (10) R OFC (11) |
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| Neutral > sad | L INS (13) R STG |
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| Sad > happy | R FFG (19) R STG (39) R preCG (6) R FFG (19) |
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| Baeken et al., 2010a | Healthy females (26.6 ± 6.9 years; 20:0/20) | 5.5 ± 4 months | Baby face pictures (neutral, positive, negative) | Block | 3.6 s | view | Positive > neutral | FFG (37/19) | p < 0.001 (uncorrected) |
| Negative > neutral | FFG (18/37/19) | ||||||||
| Barrett et al., 2012 | Healthy mothers (25–35 years; 22:0/22) | ~3 months | Baby face pictures (positive, negative) | Block | 3 s | Affect-rating task (ART) | Positive: own > unfamiliar | Cerebellum STG (38) MTG (21) AMY TH |
p < 0.001 (uncorrected) |
| Negative: own > unfamiliar | PUT postCG(3) STG (38) Cerebellum |
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| Lenzi et al., 2009 | Healthy mothers (23–42 years; 16:0/16) | 6–12 months | Baby face pictures (joy, distress, ambiguous, neutral) | Block | 2 s | View/imitate | Imitation: emotive > neutral | STS AMY |
p < 0.05 (FWE, SVC corrected) |
| Observation: emotive > neutral | IPS INS AMY |
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| Observation: own > other child | IPS Anterior INS STS |
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| Strathearn et al., 2009 | Primiparous mothers (N/A; 30:0/30) | ~11 months | Infant face pictures (happy, neutral, sad) | Event | 2 s | View | Own > unknown (secure > insecure) | Hypothalamus | p = 0.0001 |
| Own > unknown (insecure > secure) | anterior INS (13) | ||||||||
| Own happy faces: secure > insecure | OFC (10/45/46) | ||||||||
| Own happy faces: insecure > secure | dlPFC (9/46) SCG |
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| Own sad faces: secure > insecure | lPFC (9) Ventral Striatum / NAcc |
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| Own sad faces: insecure > secure | anterior INS (13) | ||||||||
| Zebrowitz et al., 2009 | Healthy subjects (21–36 years;17:8/9) | 5–9 months | Babies, babyfaced/maturefaced men pictures | Block | 200 ms | View | Baby faces > mature faced adults | AMY | p < 0.05 |
| Landi et al., 2011 | Substance-using mothers (26:0/26); non-using mothers (28:0/28); 17–42 years; | 5–10 months | Infant faces (happy, neutral, sad) | Event | 1 s | One-back memory task | Happy infant faces: non-using>substance-using mothers | R postCG L SFG R HIPP/ parahippocampus L cerebellum |
p < 0.05 (corrected) |
| Happy infant faces: substance-using>non-using mothers | L. posterior parahippocampal gyrus | ||||||||
| Sad infant faces: non-using>substance-using mothers | medial OFC MTG/STG PCC R AMY Parahippocampal gyrus |
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| Kuo et al., 2012 | Healthy fathers (28–44 years; 10:10/0) | 8–19 weeks | Videos stimuli (neutral or slight positive) | Block | 15 s | View | Own > other infant | R SFG CAU R OFC |
p < 0.05 (FDR corrected) |
| Other > own infant | FFG | ||||||||
| Laurent and Ablow, 2013 | Primiparous mothers (24.1 ± 4.1 years; 22:0/22) Half with depressive symptoms |
15–18 months | Infant face pictures (joy, distress) | Block | 6 s | View | Own > other infant joy faces (mothers with lower current self-reported depressive symptoms) | R INS L inferior OFC (11) | p < 0.05 (FDR corrected) |
| Own > other infant distress faces (non-depressed > depressed mothers) | L dorsal ACC (32) | ||||||||
| Own infant joy > distress faces (mothers with lower current self-reported depressive symptoms) | L INS- PUT L dorsal ACC-SMA (24/6) L SMG (40) |
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| Strathearn and Kim, 2013 | Healthy primiparous mothers (28.5 ± 0.8 years; 39:0/39) | 6.8 ± 0.3 months | Infant face pictures (happy, neutral, sad) | Event | 2 s | View | Own > unknown happy infant faces | R preCG (4) R SFG (6) L postCG (3) R STG (38) R PUT L AMY / Dorsal striatum R Dorsal CAU R Dorsal PUT SNi/VTA |
p < 0.005 (FDR corrected) |
| Stoeckel et al., 2014 | Healthy mothers (22–45 years; 14:0/14) | 2–10 years | Dog and child pictures | Block | 4s | View | Own > unfamiliar child | FFG (37)* PUT* SNi/VTA THA* |
p < 0.05 (FWE corrected) |
| Own child > fixation | AMY* FFG* R HIPP* Medial OFC* PUT* SNi/VTA* THA* |
*p < 0.01 (FWE corrected) | |||||||
| Wan et al., 2014 | Healthy mothers (20–43 years; 20:0/20) | 4–9 months | Own and unfamiliar infant videos with neutral to mildly positive affect, and emotionally neutral stimuli (moving traffic) | Block | 30 s | View (Infant video activation paradigm) | Infants > moving traffic | L Cerebellum (19)* R MTG (39)* R FFG (37)* |
p < 0.001 (uncorrected) |
| Own > unknown infant | Cerebellum PCU (7) R STG (38) |
*p < 0.05 (FDR corrected) | |||||||
| R IPS (40) R postCG (1) preCG (4/6) L AMY** |
*p < 0.05 (FDR corrected) | ||||||||
| Unknown > own infant | MTG (21); Cerebellum |
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| Own > unknown infant (correlates with maternal nondirectiveness) | FFG (18) PUT |
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| Own > unknown infant (correlates with infant interactive behavior) | preCG (4) THA |
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| Own > unknown infant (correlates with mothers' perceived warmth of her infant) | PCU (7) INS (13) |
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| MAGNETOENCEPHALOGRAPHY (MEG) STUDIES | |||||||||
| Kringelbach et al., 2008 | Healthy subjects (29.5 years; 12:5/7) | 3–12 months | Positive, negative, neutral | Block | 300 ms | View | Specially found on infant faces, not adult faces | L mOFC: 10–15 Hz, 130 ms R FFG: 20–25 Hz, 165 ms | |
| EVENT-RELATED POTENTIALS (ERP) ELECTROENCEPHALOGRAPH (EEG) STUDIES | |||||||||
| Doi and Shinohara, 2012 | Healthy mothers (33.7 ± 4.3 years; 16: 0/16) | M = 5.6 ± 0.8 years | Children face pictures (eyes closed, gaze straight, gaze averted) | Block | 1000 ms | Oddball paradigm (Respond to a face with its eyes open) | Straight > averted gazes | Own child (but not an unfamiliar child): N170 | |
| Unfamiliar >own child | Straight gaze: P3 | ||||||||
| Proverbio et al., 2011b | Healthy subjects (19–27 years; 40:20/20) | N/A | Adults, children, infants, objects, landscape pictures | Event | 800 ms | An implicit task with key press only to landscape pictures | Infants > adults | N1 | |
| Infants > children | Female: anterior N2 | ||||||||
| Children > adults | Male: anterior N2 | ||||||||
| Weisman et al., 2012c | Healthy parents (19–33 years; 24:13/11) Healthy lovers (19–33 years; 19:10/9) Healthy singles (19–33 years; 22:12/10) |
6 months | Infant face pictures (neutral); standard landscape stimuli | Event | 300 ms | Oddball paradigm (Press a key whenever an infant's face appeared on screen) | Unfamiliar infant faces: parents & lovers > singles (subjects) | Occipital–lateral (N170); central–frontal (P3a) sites; |
|
| Own > unfamiliar | Parietal-distributed P300 component | ||||||||
| Esposito et al., 2015 | Healthy primiparous mothers (32.06 ± 4.66 years; 21:0/21) | 3–6 months | Infant faces pictures (neutral) | Event | 500 ms | View | Own > unfamiliar | Midline occipital (Oz) cluster; |
|
| Unfamiliar > own | Right temporal (Tr) cluster; left temporal (Tl) cluster; |
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| Malak et al., 2015 | Mothers (28 ± 5.7 years; 47:0/47) | 1–23 months | Unfamiliar infant faces pictures (neutral, distressed) | Event | 1500 ms | View | Distressed > neutral | ↑ LPP - The degree of late Positive potential (LPP) amplitude elicited by neutral infant faces was positively correlated with state anxiety. |
|
| NEAR-INFRARED SPECTROSCOPY (NIRS) STUDIES | |||||||||
| Minagawa-Kawai et al., 2009 | Healthy mothers (28–42 years; 18:0/18) | 9–13 months | Video stimuli (neutral, smile) | Block | 30 s | View | Own > unfamiliar | OFC | |
| Nishitani et al., 2011 | 14 healthy mothers (20–42 years; 14:0/14); 14 healthy non-mothers (20–42 years; 14:0/14) | 9–36 months | Infant and adult face pictures (happy, angry, sad, fearful, surprised, neutral) | Event | N/A | Expression judgment | N/A | ↑ R PFC activity (discriminating infant facial emotions but not adult facial emotions) | |
N, numbers of subjects; M, male; F, female; L, left; R, right. Abbreviations of brain regions: see Table 2.