Table 2.
Human intervention studies testing the impacts of intermittent fasting regimens on weight and metabolic biomarkers associated with risk of diabetes, cardiovascular disease, and cancer.
| Author (Year) |
Sample Size (N) |
Type of Participants |
Intervention Duration & Type of Fasting |
Comparison Group or Condition |
Weight Change |
Changes in Fasting Concentrations of Biomarkers | ||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Glucoregulatory Markers |
Lipids | Inflammatory Markers |
||||||
| Alternate Day Fasting | ||||||||
| Halberg (2005)5 | 8 M | Healthy non-obese | 15 days: alternate day fasting (20 hour fasting intervals) | None | NS | ↓ glucose NS insulin |
-- | ↑ adiponectin ↓ leptin NS IL-6 NS TNF-α |
| Heilbronn (2005)6 | 8 F 8 M |
Non-obese adults | 22 days: no caloric intake every other day (36 hour fasting intervals) | None | ↓ | NS glucose ↓ insulin |
-- | -- |
| Horne (2012)7 | 20 F 10 M |
Healthy adults | 1 day: water only (28 h fasting interval) | None | ↓ | ↓ glucose ↓ insulin |
↑ LDL ↑ HDL ↓ TGs |
NS CRP NS adiponectin |
| Modified Fasting Regimens | ||||||||
| Williams (1998)12 | 31F 23M |
Overweight or obese diabetics | 20 weeks: 1 day per week fast OR 5-day consecutive fasts every 5 weeks (400–600 kcals on fasting days) a | 1200–1500 kcal weight loss diet | ↓ | NS glucose NS insulin |
NS LDL NS HDL NS TGs |
-- |
| Johnson (2007)13 | 8 F 2 M |
Overweight adults with asthma | 8 weeks: <20% of usual intake on alternate days. Ad libitum diet on non-fasting days. | None | ↓ | NS glucose NS insulin |
NS LDL ↑ HDL ↓ TGs |
NS CRP NS leptin ↓ TNF-α ↓ BDNF |
| Varady (2009)14 | 12F 8M |
Obese adults | 8 weeks: weight loss diet with alternate day modified fasting (~25% of total energy needs) | None | ↓ | -- | ↓ LDL NS HDL ↓ TGs |
-- |
| Harvie (2011)15 | 107 F | Young, overweight or obese adults | 6 months: 25% energy restriction 2 days per week | 25% energy restriction 7 days per week | NS | NS glucose ↓ insulin |
NS LDL NS HDL NS TGs |
NS CRP NS adiponection NS leptin NS BDNF |
| Bhutani (2013)16 | 39 F 2 M |
Obese adults | 12 weeks: 25% of energy needs alternating with ad libitum intake | Control group | ↓ | NS glucose NS insulin |
NS LDL NS HDL NS TGs |
NS CRP |
| Eshghinia (2013)17 | 15 F | Overweight or obese | 6 weeks: 25–30% energy needs on Sat. Mon, Wed; ad libitum other days | None | ↓ | -- | NS LDL NS HDL NS TGs |
-- |
| Harvie (2013)18 | 37 F | Overweight or obese women | 12 weeks: 25% energy restriction 2 consecutive days per week | 25% energy restriction all days of week | NS | NS glucose NS HbA1c ↓ insulin |
NS LDL NS HDL NS TGs |
NS adiponectin NS leptin NS IL-6 NS TNF-α |
| Varady (2013)19 | 22 F 8 M |
Normal to overweight adults | 12 weeks: weight loss diet with alternate day modified fasting (~25% of energy needs) | Control group | ↓ | -- | NS LDL NS HDL ↓ TGs |
↓ CRP ↑ adiponectin ↓ leptin |
| Time-Restricted Feeding | ||||||||
| Carlson (2007)24 Stote (2007)25 |
10 F 5 M |
Normal weight, middle-aged | 8 week period: 1 meal per day | 8 weeks of 3 meals per day (crossover design) | ↓ | ↓ glucose NS insulin |
↓ LDL ↑ HDL ↑ TGs |
NS leptin NS resistin NS adiponectin NS BDNF |
| LeCheminant (2013)23 | 29 M | Normal weight young men | 2 weeks: nightly fasting period from 7 pm to 6 am (≥11 hours) | 2 weeks of usual nightly fasting interval (crossover design) | ↓ | -- | -- | -- |
Abbreviations: ↓ denotes a statistically significant decrease (p<0.05); ↑ denotes a statistically significant increase (p<0.05); NS = not statistically significant (p≥0.05); BDNF = brain-derived neurotrophic factor; CRP = C-reactive protein; F = female; HbA1C = hemoglobin A1C; LDL; low-density lipoproteins; HDL = high-density lipoproteins; M = male; TG = triacylglycerides; TNF-α = tumor necrosis factor alpha.
a
No significant differences between fasting groups.