Table 1.

Risk Factors Associated With Parkinson’s Disease¹⁶–²⁰,²²,²³,²⁹–³⁸

Elevated cholesterol Environmental toxins ○ Carbon disulfide ○ Cyanide ○ Herbicides ○ Methanol and organic solvents ○ Pesticides Head trauma High caloric intake Increased body mass index Inflammation associated with activation of microglia Methcathinone (manganese content) Methamphetamine/amphetamine abuse Mitochondrial dysfunction Nitric oxide toxicity Oxidative stress ○ Formation of free radicals (e.g., hydrogen peroxide) ○ Potent neurotoxins (e.g., 1-methyl-4-phenyl-1,2,3,6-tetrahydropyridine) Post-infection states Signal-mediated apoptosis