Table 6.

Japanese American and Japanese Canadian Caregivers.

References	Focus of research	Research design	Sample characteristics	Key findings
(26) Anngela-Cole and Hilton (2009)	Evaluate CGs’ cultural differences in attitudes toward caregiving and stress level	Mail survey	98 third-generation JA 86 CA CGs	• Both CGs experienced similar levels of caregiving stress. • Caucasian CGs spent more caregiving time and had stronger beliefs and a more positive attitude about caregiving duties. • JA CGs used network support while Caucasian CGs relied on formal services.
(27) Knight, Robinson, Flynn Longmire, Chun, Nakao, and Kim (2002)	Assess relationship between cultural values and stress/coping	Questionnaire and face-to-face interview	20 second- and third-generation JA CGs	• CGs showed lower familism due to acculturation from Asian to Western cultural values. • Stronger Asian cultural values brought CGs higher burden. • Familism was not a buffer for this sample of CGs.
(28) Kobayashi (2000)	Explore how third-generation JA CGs support their parents	Face-to-face interview	100 second- generation JC parents and 100 third- generation JC children	• Filial responsibility was strong among the third-generation CGs. • Cultural preferences within the family, parents’ needs, children's availability, ethnic identity, and demographic factors influenced Asian American family's support.
(29)Kobayashi and Funk (2010)	Explore sense of filial responsibility across generations	Face-to-face interview	100 second- generation JC parents and 100 third- generation JC children	• Both generations regarded filial responsibility in degree and content important. • Cultural norms of filial responsibility endured in “translated,” mutually agreed ways, promoting family cohesion.
(30)Young, McCormick, and Vitaliano (2002a)	Explore attitudes toward long-term care services and utilization	Face-to-face interview	26 JA CGs, 4 CRs, and 14 professional CGs	• Ability to meet CRs’ needs, CRs’ autonomy, quality of staff, and services reflecting Japanese culture was important. • Family's involvement, sharing responsibility in overall care, communication, and coordination were important. • Bilingual JA CGs and Japanese food were preferable.
(31) Young, McCormick, and Vitaliano (2002b)	Explore CGs’ and service providers’ perspectives on community-based services	Participant observation and face-to-face interview	26 JA CGs, 4 CRs, and 14 professional CGs	• Generational differences in expectations to caregiving commitment and Japanese heritage were found. • Perceptions about caregiving became more complex and diverse as CGs became more distant from the first-generation immigrants.

Note. CG = caregiver; CA = Caucasian American; JA = Japanese American; JC = Japanese Canadian; CR = care recipient.