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. Author manuscript; available in PMC: 2016 Sep 1.
Published in final edited form as: Biol Psychiatry. 2015 Jan 30;78(5):344–353. doi: 10.1016/j.biopsych.2015.01.005

Table 1.

Neuroendocrine biological factors associated with PTSD.

Neuroendocrine Biomarkers Relationship to PTSD References
HPA-Axis
 Glucocorticoid negative feedback Augmented in PTSD (39)
 Baseline cortisol Attenuated in PTSD (31), (32)
 Acute cortisol following trauma Lower levels increase risk for PTSD (33, 38)
 Pituitary adenylate cyclase-activating polypeptide (PACAP) Increased in women with PTSD (53)
Steroid Hormones
 Estradiol Reduced levels increase risk for PTSD and are associated with impaired fear extinction (49)
 Allopregnanolone Decreased in women with PTSD (54)
 Dehydroepiandrosterone (DHEA) Increased in PTSD (68)
 Dehydroepiandrosterone sulfate (DHEAS) Increased in PTSD; High DHEAS increases risk for PTSD (68)
 Testosterone Low levels increase risk for PTSD (56)
Metabolic Hormones
 NPY Decreased in PTSD (59)
 Ghrelin Increases fear in rodents (62)
 Insulin Increased response to glucose in PTSD (63)
 Endocannabinoids Decreased in PTSD (64)