Table 2. Hallmarks of AKI.
Hallmark * | Modulated associated event |
---|---|
RAAS activation | ↑ Angiotensin signaling |
Na+/Cl- retention, increased luminal Na+ | ↑ Aldosterone/cortisol signaling events |
Hyperglycemia | ↑ Diabetes |
Tubular cell dynamics | ↑ Infiltration of immature cells |
Cytoskeletal reorganization | ↑ ECM remodeling |
Elevated blood pressure | ↑ Hypertension |
Accumulation of free and esterified cholesterol | ↑ Systemic stress response |
PI3K modulation | ↓ Phosphoinositol-3-kinase activity |
↓ Insulin signaling | |
Vasoconstriction | ↑ Vasoconstrictors (endothelin, angiotensin, MMP2) |
↓ Vasodilators (nitric oxide NO) | |
Hypoxia | ↑ Hypoxia inducing factor HIF1α |
↑ NADPH oxidases | |
↑ ROS levels | |
↑ NFkB activity | |
↑ Inflammation factors (TNFα, TF, PAT1, MCP1) | |
↑ Inflammation and inflammatory response | |
↑ Atherogenesis, fibrinogenesis | |
↓ ATP levels | |
↓ NAD levels | |
↑ Hypoxanthine levels | |
↑ Necrosis |
* Clinical and disease model observations are listed based on modulated associated events, and the arrows represent either up- or down-regulation.