Table 2. Hallmarks of AKI.

Hallmark *	Modulated associated event
RAAS activation	↑ Angiotensin signaling
Na+/Cl- retention, increased luminal Na+	↑ Aldosterone/cortisol signaling events
Hyperglycemia	↑ Diabetes
Tubular cell dynamics	↑ Infiltration of immature cells
Cytoskeletal reorganization	↑ ECM remodeling
Elevated blood pressure	↑ Hypertension
Accumulation of free and esterified cholesterol	↑ Systemic stress response
PI3K modulation	↓ Phosphoinositol-3-kinase activity
	↓ Insulin signaling
Vasoconstriction	↑ Vasoconstrictors (endothelin, angiotensin, MMP2)
	↓ Vasodilators (nitric oxide NO)
Hypoxia	↑ Hypoxia inducing factor HIF1α
	↑ NADPH oxidases
	↑ ROS levels
	↑ NFkB activity
	↑ Inflammation factors (TNFα, TF, PAT1, MCP1)
	↑ Inflammation and inflammatory response
	↑ Atherogenesis, fibrinogenesis
	↓ ATP levels
	↓ NAD levels
	↑ Hypoxanthine levels
	↑ Necrosis

* Clinical and disease model observations are listed based on modulated associated events, and the arrows represent either up- or down-regulation.