Figure 1.

Stimulation of non-immune cells including endothelial cells and astrocytes with IL-17, TNFα, IFNγ, and IL-6 from T cells induces a synergistic effect on the production of inflammatory chemokines such as CCL20 and IL-6. An imaginary figure is shown. The synergistic effect requires the simultaneous activation of two transcription factors, NF-κB and STATs, in non-immune cells. Various soluble factors, including neurotransmitters from activated neurons, augment the inflammation amplifier by activating or sustaining the activation of NF-κB and STATs. Mean ± SD are shown. ***p < 0.001.