. Author manuscript; available in PMC: 2016 Sep 1.

Published in final edited form as: Calcif Tissue Int. 2015 Mar 18;97(3):292–307. doi: 10.1007/s00223-015-9977-5

Table 1.

Effect of dehydration on bone mechanical properties at different length scales

Tissue	Dehydration treatment	Mechanical test	Effect of dehydration^*	Ref
At the mineralized fibril scale
Equine cortical	Air dried	AFM	↑ stiffness parallel to the fibril (+83%) and orthogonal to the fibril (+54%)	[29]
Elephant dentin	Acetone, ethanol	AFM	↑ stiffness of collagen fibers: water: E~40 MPa; ethanol: E~1000 MPa; acetone:E~1500 MPa ↓ viscoelasticity of collagen fibers in water > in ethanol > in acetone	[65]
At the lamellar scale
Porcine cortical	Air dried (24h)	Nanoindentation	↑stiffness (+42% in osteons and +26% in interstitial bone)	[33]
Bovine cortical	Air dried	Nanoindentation	↑ stiffness (+40%)	[34]
Human cortical and trabecular	50°C (24h)	Nanoindentation	↑ stiffness (dry state: E = [11.1–31.6 GPa]; wet state: E = [7.0–18.5 GPa])	[35]
Mouse tibia	Air dried (1h)	Nanoindentation	↑ stiffness and ↑ hardness (E^dry /E^wet ~ 1.3; H^dry/H^wet ~ 4.1)	[36]
Bovine cortical	Air dried (14 days)	Nanoindentation	↑ stiffness (+15% in osteons, +10% in interstitial bone) ↑ hardness (+18% in osteons, +12% in interstitial bone)	[37]
Canine cortical		Nanoindentation	↑ stiffness and ↑ hardness (E^dry /E^wet ~ 1.6 and H^dry /H^wet ~ 1.4)	[38]
Equine cortical	Air dried (24h)	Nanoindentation	↑ stiffness and ↑ hardness (E^dry /E^wet ~ 1.7; H^dry/H^wet ~ 1.5)	[29]
Mouse femora	Dehydrated in ethanol + embedded inPMMA	Dynamic nanoindentation	↓viscoelasticity (tan δ) from wet to dry conditions	[42]
Fibrolamellar bovine bone		Micromechanical tensile tests	↑ stiffness and ↑ hardness Tensile test parallel to the collagenfiber: strength^dry/Strength^wet ~ 1.7 Tensile test perpendicular to the collagen fiber: E^dry/E^wet ~ 3.3	[39]
Equine cortical	100% ethanol	Nanoindentation	↑ stiffness (E^dry /E^wet ~ 1.3)	[67]
Equine cortical	50%, 70%, 100% Ethanol (24h)	Nanoindentation	↑ stiffness (increase dependent on the ethanol concentration) 50% EtOH: E = 8.5 GPa; 70% EtOH: E = 13.1 GPa; 100% EtOH: E = 15.8 GPa	[66]
At the scale of an osteon
Human vertebrae	Air dried (overnight)	Microindentation	↑ stiffness, ↑ anisotropy ratio (Eaxial/Etransverse), ↑ elastic energy, ↑ dissipated energy	[41]
Equine cortical	Air dried (24h)	Microindentation	↑ stiffness (E^dry /E^wet ~ 1.25)	[29]
Lamb cortical	42°C (48h)	Microindentation	↑ Vickers hardness	[45]
Human femur	Air dried	Microindentation	↑ hardness (+54%)	[44]
Human trabecular	70% ethanol	Microindentation	↑ hardness (+10%)	[68]
At the material level
Human femur, tibia, humerus	Air dried	Tensile and compression test	↑ stiffness in compression (E^dry /E^wet ~ 1.25) and tension (E^dry /E^wet ~ 1.6) ↑ ultimate stress in compression (σ^dry /σ^wet ~ 1.63) and tension (σ^dry /σ^wet ~ 1.50)	[46]
Human femur	Air drying	Tensile test	↑ modulus of elasticity (+18%) ↓ percentage elongation under tension (−45%) ↑ ultimate tensile strength (+31%)	[44]
Human tibia,horse radius, dog femur, sheep metacarpus	Air dried (5h)	Tensile test	↑ stiffness (+7%)	[47]
Human femur	Drying in a vacuum at 21, 50, 70, and 110°C for 4h	3-point bending test	↑ stiffness (p<0.0001) ↓ strength (p<0.0001) ↓ toughness (p<0.0001)	[48]
Mouse femur	Air dried (21°C, 48h)	3-point bending test	↑ stiffness (+40%), ↓ ductility (ultimate deflection: −57%)	[49]
Human femur	Air drying, 62°, and 103°C	Tensile test	no changes in stiffness and yield strength: ↓ toughness and ↓ post-yield strain	[50]
Bovine cortical	60°C (24h) or 110°C (2h)	Fracture toughness	↓ fracture toughness (K^dry / K^wet ~ 0.69) ↓ work to fracture (Wf^dry /Wf^wet ~ 0.16)	[51]
Bovine cortical		Fracture toughness	↓ fracture toughness (K^wet 60% greater than K^dry)	[52]
Bovine cortical		Fracture toughness	↓ fracture toughness (K^wet 2 to 3 times higher than K^dry depending on the strain rate)	[53]
Bovine dentin	Air dried (22°C, 7 days)	Fracture toughness	↓ fracture energy (wet = 554 J/m²; dry = 114 J/m²)	[54]
Bovine cortical	70% ethanol	Fracture toughness	↑ fracture toughness (K^dry 25–45% greater than K^wet) ↓ work to fracture (Wf^dry 28–56% lower than Wf^wet)	[64]
Bovine cortical	ethanol	Fracture toughness	↑ fracture toughness (K^dry 17% greater than K^wet)	[63]
Elephant dentin	86-proof Scotch whisky	Bending test Fracture toughness	↑ stiffness (75–100%) ↑ strength (40–50%) ↑ growth toughness	[61]
Elephant dentin	Methanol, ethanol, acetone	Bending test Fracture toughness	↑ stiffness, bending strength ↓ ductility/deformation prior to fracture ↑ initiation toughness ↑ growth toughness	[65]

The following abbreviations have been used: Young modulus (E), hardness (H), stress (σ), stress intensity factor (K), work to fracture (W_f)