Table 3.

Different GFs and their functions in cardiac tissue engineering.

growth factor	function	critical issues	reference
VEGF	migration, proliferation and survival of endothelial cells; endothelial capillary formation	rapid degradation due to short half-life; excessive amounts cause vascular leakage	[93–96]
bFGF	heparin-binding protein; proliferation of endothelial cells, smooth muscle cells; endothelial capillary formation	rapid diffusion, requiring controlled release; mitogen for a wide variety of cell types	[95,97,98]
HGF	mitogen for hepatocytes and other cell types; growth of endothelial cells	short half-life, rapid diffusion; large amounts of protein required for response	[99]
PDGF	mitogen for connective tissue cells, released from platelets; recruitment of smooth muscle cells to endothelial linings; vessel maturation	vessel destabilization for high levels; increased activity linked with several diseases	[100–102]