Prototypical genetic network modules. The prototypical input–output system (a) with total DNA (), mRNA and protein () is shown. Dimerization of monomeric input transcription factor (TF) () and output TF () has been considered as well as operator-binding and lumped transcription, translation and degradation. The input–output ‘module’ acts as a building block for modelling larger networks. For the case of multiple operators (b), the system also includes the total additional TF binding sites () and the total protein concentration also includes the TF bound to the second operator. In (b), the additional regulatory element is part of a second promoter, but the models and methodology are also applicable when additional elements regulate expression of the same gene. (Online version in colour.)