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. Author manuscript; available in PMC: 2016 Sep 1.
Published in final edited form as: Wiley Interdiscip Rev Dev Biol. 2015 Apr 29;4(5):529–544. doi: 10.1002/wdev.192

Figure 3. In vitro Generation of Cortical Cells.

Figure 3

Strategies to differentiate cortical cell types in vitro follow similar developmentally inspired trajectories. Pluripotent cells, either embryonic or induced, form forebrain neuroepithelial cells even in the absence of factors. This default fate decision can be reinforced with FGF8 or dual SMAD/WNT inhibition. For directed differentiation of interneurons and oligodendrocytes, progenitors are ventrally patterned, while for astrocytes and projection neurons, progenitors are dorsally patterned. Once this regional specification is established, developmental programs unfold in typical order such that neurons are generated first, followed by astrocytes and oligodendrocytes. Different culture conditions and durations allow for enrichment of the desired population, although all strategies give rise to mixtures of neurons, glia and progenitors. For cerebral organoids, pluripotent stem cells are grown in spinning bioreactors to allow natural developmental programs to unfold.