Table 1.

Racial/ethnic minorities, coping, and breast cancer: quantitative studies, 1980–2012 (=15)

Authors listed by year	Primary question	Methods	Sample	Coping measures	Results
Umezawa et al., 2010 [48]	Is belief in divine control related to coping strategies among women from different ethnic groups?	Descriptive, cross-sectional survey	Breast cancer patients: 92 Whites, 99 Latina, 66 African American,	Brief COPE	Belief in divine control was positively related to approach coping and acceptance and negatively related to behavioral disengagement, avoidance, and denial among Latinas but not the other groups. Overall, Latinas used approach coping more often and avoidance coping less often than Whites. African Americans used less approach coping than Whites and more positive reframing and avoidance coping than Latinas.
Maly et al., 2008 [49]	Are racial/ethnic disparities in older women’s health-related quality of life and type of breast cancer treatment mediated by physician and individual variables? Does patient empowerment via communication with physician predict better quality of life? Do physician-related factors and patient cognitive factors mediate the relationship between race/ethnicity and quality of life and breast cancer surgery?	Descriptive, cross-sectional survey	Breast cancer patients: 99 Latina, 66 African American, 92 Whites	Brief COPE	Latinas had lower quality of life and choose breast-conserving surgery less often than whites. Quality of life was predicted by positive coping, less mistrust of the medical system, being non-Latina, greater breast cancer knowledge, perceived self-efficacy and fewer comorbidities. The effect of race on quality of life was partially mediated by medical mistrust.
Gill et al., 2006 [50]	What is the longer-term effect of an uncertainty management at 20 months?	Randomized controlled trial, longitudinal study	Breast cancer patients: 342 Whites, 141 African American	Cognitive coping strategies	At 20 months, the benefits of the intervention persisted with improvements in coping skills but also cognitive reframing and cancer knowledge.
Morgan et al., 2006 [51]	Are there relationships between spiritual well-being, religious coping, and quality of life among African American breast cancer patients in treatment?	Descriptive, cross-sectional survey	Breast cancer patients: 11 African American	Brief RCOPE	The women used more positive than negative religious coping. Spiritual well-being was significantly positively related to quality of life. Negative religious coping was related to poorer physical well-being.
Mishel et al., 2005 [52]	What is the efficaciousness of a uncertainty management intervention delivered to older African American and Caucasian long-term breast cancer survivors?	Randomized controlled Trial, longitudinal survey	Breast cancer patients: 149 African American 360 Whites	Cognitive coping strategies	After training in uncertainty management Whites women increased their use of coping self-statements, cognitive and behavioral coping, while African American women decreased catastrophizing.
Culver et al., 2004 [53]	What are differences and similarities in coping and distress across different racial/ethnic groups?	Descriptive, cross-sectional survey	Breast cancer patients: 26 African American, 151 Whites, 61 Latina	Brief COPE	Whites used more humor and less religious coping than Hispanics and African Americans.
Fogel et al., 2003 [54]	Are there racial differences in Internet use for medical information and potential of psychological benefits?	Descriptive, cross-sectional survey	Breast cancer patients: 143 Whites, 37 African American and Latina	Brief COPE	No differences in coping between Whites and African American/Hispanic women.
Pikler et al., 2003 [55]	Are there racial/ethnic differences in body image, self-efficacy in coping and coping?	Descriptive, cross-sectional survey	Breast cancer patients: 61 Whites, 20 African Americans, 5 Native American	Cancer behavior inventory Ways of Coping Questionnaire	No significant racial/ethnic differences in body image, coping and self-efficacy in coping.
Soler-Vila et al., 2003 [56]	Is there a relationship between psychosocial factors and survival in African American and White breast cancer patients?	Longitudinal survey	Breast cancer patients: 145 African American women, 177 White	Ways of Coping Questionnaire	White women had higher levels of denial, wishful thinking, fatalism, and less passive coping than African American women. Coping was not related to survival.
Culver et al., 2002 [57]	Are there racial/ethnic differences across time between coping and distress?	Longitudinal survey	Breast cancer patients: 8 African American, 53 Hispanic, 70 White	Brief COPE	White women used humor more and religious coping less than the other groups. Hispanic women used more self-distraction and venting than the other groups. White women also used venting more than African Americans. Behavioral disengagement predicted less postsurgical distress among Hispanic women while it predicted more distress among White women. Disengagement was related to greater distress for both Hispanic and White women.
Gotay et al., 2002 [58]	Does quality of life vary according to ethnicity?	Descriptive cross- sectional survey	Prostate and breast cancer patients: 126 breast cancer patients; 11 Filipino, 59 Japanese, 35 Whites, 19 Hawaiian	QLG-30 and introduction of coping domain (4 items)	There were no differences across ethnicity in terms of quality of life or coping in the breast cancer group.
Bourjolly and Hirschman, 2001 [59]	Are there racial differences in coping strategies and uses of social support between African American and White women with breast cancer?	Descriptive, cross-sectional survey	Breast cancer patients: 41 African American 61 White	Ways of Coping Questionnaire	African Americans were more likely to rely and feel more supported by on spirituality, while Whites relied more on family and friends.
Reynolds et al., 2000 [60]	Are there differences between styles of coping and breast cancer survival between African Americans and Whites?	Longitudinal survey	Breast cancer patients: 442 African American, 405 White	Ways of Coping Questionnaire	African Americans were more likely to use emotional suppression, wishful thinking, and positive reappraisal while Whites were more likely to express emotions, use problem-solving, and escapism. Emotional expression was related to lower risk of mortality.
Alferi et al., 1999 [61]	What is the relationship of religiosity to religious coping and distress in Catholic and Evangelical Hispanic women newly diagnosed?	Longitudinal survey	Breast cancer patients: 49 Latina	COPE	There were differences by religious affiliation. Catholic women who had high levels of religiosity had more distress, while Evangelical women with high levels of religiosity had less distress throughout the year.
Bourjollly et al., 1999 [62]	How do appraisal, coping and coping resources impact social functioning between African American and White women with breast cancer?	Descriptive, cross-sectional survey	Breast cancer patients: 41 African American, 61 White	Ways of Coping Questionnaire	African American women had more difficulties with social functioning than Whites. Being African American was a significant predictor of poor functioning in terms of household activities.