Table 2.

Definition of physician self-disclosure and summary of findings from studies containing empirical data of physician self-disclosure (ordered by method and year)

Source (Year) [Method]	Definition of physician self-disclosure	Findings related to physician decision and reasoning to self-disclose or not to self-disclose	Findings related to type, content and magnitude of self-disclosure	Findings related to the outcomes on patients and/or physician–patient relationship
Holmes et al (2010) [MM]10	Physician statements about their own personal or professional experience including statements that would disclose the physician’s emotions, attitudes, or opinions	N/R	75% of visits contained SD, median 3 per visit	No SD resulted in 70% of parents strongly agreeing they were satisfied Visits with SD resulted in 98.2% of parents strongly agreeing they were satisfied More SD in visits where parents strongly agreed they were satisfied
McDaniel et al (2007) [MM]5	Physician statements about his or her own personal or professional experience	N/R	SD common (34%), spontaneous (86%), and physician focused (60%)	60% of SDs related to patient’s preceding statement 14% a result of patient request for information 21% SD returned to patient concern 85% not-useful to patient, 11% disruptive
Beach et al (2004) [MM]9	Any statement made to a patient that describes the physician’s personal experience in areas which have medical and/or emotional relevance for the patient	N/R	SD classified into 6 categories (common rare): reassurance, counselling, rapport, casual, intimacy, and extended narrative 4/242 SDs as a response to a patient question SD types likely to be self-preoccupied, intimate or cause patient harm were rare	N/R
Beach et al (2004) [CS]8	As Beach et al above	N/R	SD common in both disciplines (17% primary care visits and 14% of surgical visits. Median SDs/visit = 2 No difference in disclosure types used by surgeons and primary carers SD consults longer	Patient-reported satisfaction was less likely in primary care with SD Patient-reported satisfaction was more likely in surgical setting with SD Sex of physician not a factor
Allen et al (2015) [Q]11	Physician disclosure of emotions and personal experiences	Enhances patient support and empathy, closeness, improve patient motivation and adherence. Develops trust and mutuality, reduces any power imbalance. Disadvantages also reported	Would disclose physical to psychological. None would disclose hypothetical criminal issues	GPs felt that SD is mainly beneficial
Malterud et al (2009) [Q]7	Physician disclosure of emotions and personal experiences sometimes disclosed to patients	Awareness and capacity for interpretation, creative solutions, and compassion had been enhanced through SD of a shared experience	N/R	Vulnerability of physician may benefit patient but needs to be used with caution
Malterud and Hollnagel (2005) [Q]6	Physician disclosure of emotions and personal experiences	Physician hesitation prior to SD (? considering the possible outcomes)	SDs on past experiences and not current situations SD included spontaneous emotional exposure and sharing of experiences	Physician perceived that patient sensed a heightened level of empathy and understanding Focus-directed back to patient after SD
Candib (1987) [Q]3	Offering of personal information by physicians	SD makes recommendations more credible and leads to better adherence to medical regimens Demonstration of empathy for patients with similar experiences Reaching out to an isolated and grieving human Enabled learning from patients in similar situations SD could have a coercive effect Careful of SD with dependent or highly curious patients	Role-model SD to instruct and guide patients Relationship-enhancing SD	SD disruptive to relationship if disclosure of stigmatised material occurred in setting of inadequate relationship SD that is healing for doctor SD perceived negatively if repeated SD may make it easier for patients to share their experiences with physician SD to patients with whom physician has a long relationship can advance closeness and mutuality

CS = cross sectional. MM = mixed methods. N/R = not reported. Q = qualitative. SD = physician self-disclosure.