Table 2. Comparison of deliveries with and without hand washing.
| Factors associated with hand washing | India | Bangladesh | Nepal | |||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Overall | Hand washing | No hand washing | p a | Overall | Hand washing | No hand washing | p a | Overall | Hand washing | No hand washing | p a | |
| (n = 10,399) | (n = 2677) | (n = 7722) | (n = 21,952) | (n = 17,639) | (n = 4313) | (n = 2309) | (n = 1258) | (n = 1051) | ||||
| Postpartum maternal death, n (%) | ||||||||||||
| No | 10381 (99.83) | 2676 (99.96) | 7705 (99.78) | 0.05 | 21919 (99.85) | 17617 (99.88) | 4302 (99.74) | 0.048 | 2301 (99.65) | 1254 (99.68) | 1047 (99.62) | 0.799 |
| Yes | 18 (0.17) | 1 (0.04) | 17 (0.22) | 33 (0.15) | 22 (0.12) | 11 (0.26) | 8 (0.35) | 4 (0.32) | 4 (0.38) | |||
| Use of clean delivery kit, n (%) | ||||||||||||
| No | 8750 (84.14) | 1907 (71.24) | 6843 (88.62) | <0.001 | 18283 (83.29) | 14230 (80.67) | 4053 (93.97) | <0.001 | 387 (16.76) | 253 (20.11) | 134 (12.75) | <0.001 |
| Yes | 1599 (15.45) | 743 (25.75) | 856 (11.09) | 3472 (15.82) | 3225 (18.28) | 247 (5.73) | 139 (6.02) | 133 (10.57) | 6 (0.57) | |||
| Missing | 50 (0.48) | 27 (1.01) | 23 (0.30) | 197 (0.90) | 184 (1.04) | 13 (0.30) | 1783 (77.22) | 872 (69.32) | 911 (86.68) | |||
| Maternal characteristics | ||||||||||||
| Maternal education, n (%) | ||||||||||||
| No education | 7797 (74.98) | 1783 (66.60) | 6014 (77.88) | <0.001 | 6013 (27.39) | 4467 (25.32) | 1546 (35.85) | <0.001 | 1967 (85.19) | 1007 (80.05) | 960 (91.34) | <0.001 |
| Primary | 525 (5.05) | 101 (7.13) | 334 (4.33) | 7967 (36.29) | 6302 (35.73) | 1665 (38.60) | 240 (10.39) | 165 (12.12) | 75 (7.14) | |||
| Secondary | 2077 (17.79) | 703 (26.26) | 1374 (17.79) | 7968 (36.29) | 6867 (38.93) | 1101 (25.53) | 102 (4.42) | 86 (6.84) | 16 (1.52) | |||
| Missing | 0 (0.00) | 0 (0.00) | 0 (0.00) | 4 (0.02) | 3 (0.02) | 1 (0.02) | 0 (0.00) | 0 (0.00) | 0 (0.00) | |||
| Maternal age in years, n (%) | ||||||||||||
| <20 | 1021 (9.82) | 307 (11.47) | 714 (9.25) | <0.001 | 3156 (14.38) | 2596 (14.72) | 560 (12.98) | <0.001 | 172 (7.45) | 102 (8.11) | 70 (6.66) | <0.001 |
| 20–29 | 5488 (52.77) | 1538 (57.48) | 3950 (51.15) | 14238 (64.86) | 11518 (65.30) | 2720 (63.07) | 1384 (59.94) | 803 (63.83) | 581 (55.28) | |||
| 30–39 | 2155 (20.72) | 414 (15.47) | 1741 (22.55) | 4287 (19.53) | 3314 (18.79) | 973 (22.56) | 612 (26.50) | 293 (23.29) | 319 (30.35) | |||
| 40+ | 109 (1.07) | 25 (0.93) | 84 (1.09) | 267 (1.22) | 207 (1.17) | 60 (1.39) | 141 (6.11) | 60 (4.77) | 81 (7.71) | |||
| Missing | 1626 (15.54) | 393 (14.68) | 1233 (15.97) | 4 (0.02) | 4 (0.02) | 0 (0.00) | 0 (0.00) | 0 (0.00) | 0 (0.00) | |||
| Household assets, n (%) b | ||||||||||||
| All | 1630 (15.67) | 506 (18.90) | 1124 (14.56) | <0.001 | 8275 (37.70) | 7038 (39.90) | 1237 (28.68) | <0.001 | 56 (2.43) | 48 (3.82) | 8 (0.76) | <0.001 |
| Some | 6557 (63.05) | 1634 (61.04) | 4923 (63.75) | 5417 (24.68) | 4355 (24.69) | 1062 (24.62) | 1009 (43.70) | 582 (46.26) | 427 (40.63) | |||
| None | 2212 (21.27) | 537 (20.06) | 1675 (21.69) | 8260 (37.63) | 6246 (35.41) | 2014 (46.70) | 1243 (53.83) | 627 (49.84) | 616 (58.61) | |||
| Missing | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 (0.00) | 0 (0.00) | 0 (0.00) | 1 (0.04) | 1 (0.08) | 0 (0.00) | |||
| Parity, n (%) | ||||||||||||
| 1 | 2340 (22.50) | 684 (25.55) | 1656 (21.45) | <0.001 | 6507 (29.64) | 5504 (31.20) | 1003 (23.26) | <0.001 | 266 (11.52) | 159 (12.64) | 107 (10.18) | <0.001 |
| 2 | 2410 (23.18) | 654 (24.43) | 1756 (22.74) | 6318 (28.68) | 5171 (29.32) | 1147 (26.59) | 481 (20.83) | 291 (22.13) | 190 (18.08) | |||
| 3 | 1878 (18.06) | 519 (19.39) | 1359 (17.60) | 4201 (19.14) | 3278 (18.58) | 923 (21.40) | 446 (19.32) | 263 (20.91) | 183 (17.41) | |||
| 4 | 3757 (36.13) | 816(30.48) | 2941 (38.09) | 4923 (22.43) | 3683 (20.88) | 1240 (28.75) | 1163 (48.33) | 545 (43.32) | 571 (54.33) | |||
| Missing | 14 (0.13) | 4 (0.15) | 10 (0.13) | 3 (0.01) | 3 (0.02) | 0 (0.00) | 0 (0.00) | 0 (0.00) | 0 (0.00) | |||
| Antenatal period | ||||||||||||
| Number of antenatal care visits, n (%) | ||||||||||||
| 0 | 3413 (32.82) | 755 (28.20) | 2658 (34.42) | <0.001 | 7931 (36.13) | 5973 (33.86) | 1958 (45.40) | <0.001 | 1533 (66.39) | 755 (60.02) | 778 (74.02) | <0.001 |
| 1 | 1471 (14.15) | 386 (14.42) | 1085 (14.05) | 4768 (21.72) | 3805 (21.57) | 963 (22.33) | 257 (11.13) | 138 (10.97) | 119 (11.32) | |||
| 2 | 2375 (22.84) | 560 (20.92) | 1815 (23.50) | 3423 (15.59) | 2844 (16.12) | 579 (13.42) | 189 (8.19) | 116 (9.22) | 73 (6.95) | |||
| 3 | 1528 (14.69) | 452 (16.88) | 1076 (13.93) | 2584 (11.77) | 2157 (12..23) | 427 (9.90) | 162 (7.02) | 111 (8.82) | 51 (4.85) | |||
| 4 | 1606 (15.44) | 522 (19.50) | 1084 (14.04) | 3232 (14.72) | 2850 (16.16) | 382 (8.82) | 168 (7.28) | 138 (10.97) | 30 (2.85) | |||
| Missing | 6 (0.06) | 2 (0.07) | 4 (0.06) | 14 (0.06) | 10 (0.06) | 4 (0.09) | 0 (0.00) | 0 (0.00) | 0 (0.00) | |||
| Skilled birth attendant c | ||||||||||||
| No | 9816 (94.39) | 2259 (84.39) | 7557 (97.86) | <0.001 | 21276 (96.92) | 16987 (96.30) | 4289 (99.44) | <0.001 | 2302 (99.70) | 1253 (99.60) | 1049 (99.81) | 0.466 |
| Yes | 523 (5.03) | 410 (15.32) | 113 (1.46) | 666 (3.03) | 642 (3.64) | 24 (0.56) | 7 (0.30) | 5 (0.40) | 2 (0.19) | |||
| Missing | 60 (0.58) | 8 (0.30) | 52 (0.67) | 10 (0.05) | 10 (0.06) | 0 (0.00) | 0 (0.00) | 0 (0.00) | 0 (0.00) | |||
a p-value obtained through chi squared statistic or Fisher’s exact test where appropriate
b Household assets include the following definition for the different categories: all assets include those households containing any one of the following items; television, fridge, electricity; some assets refer households having any one of the following; a bicycle, radio, fan or phone, and no assets refer to a household not having any of the above mentioned assets.