Table 2.

Consequences of involvement in bullying behaviour in childhood/adolescence on outcomes in young adulthood and adulthood (18–50 years)

	Findings			Example References
Categories	Victims	Bullies	Bully/victims
Health and mental health
Anti-social personality disorder	No significant relationship was found between victimisation and anti-social behaviour.	Being a bully increased the risk of violent, property and traffic offences, delinquency, aggressiveness, impulsivity, psychopathy, contact with police or courts and serious criminal charges in young adulthood.	Frequent bully/victim status predicted anti-social personality disorder. Bully/victims also had higher rates of serious criminal charges and broke into homes, businesses and property in young adulthood.	9 57–61
Anxiety	Victimised adolescents (especially pure victims) displayed a higher prevalence of agoraphobia, generalised anxiety and panic disorder in young adulthood.	No significant relationship was found between being a pure bully and anxiety problems.	Bully/victims displayed higher levels of panic disorder and agoraphobia (females only) in young adulthood. Frequent bully/victim status predicted anxiety disorder.	55 56 59 62
Depression and internalising problems	All types of frequent victimisation increased the risk of depression and internalising problems. Experiencing more types of victimisation was related to higher risk for depression. On the other hand, Copeland and colleagues did not find a significant association between pure victim status and depression.	No significant association between pure bully status and depression was found.	Bully/victims were at increased risk of young adult depression.	9 55 56 59 63
Inflammation	Being a pure victim in childhood/adolescence predicted higher levels of C-reactive protein (CRP).	Being a pure bully in childhood/adolescence predicted lower levels of CRP.	The CRP level of bully/victims did not differ from that of those uninvolved in bullying.	64
Psychotic experiences	Pure victims had a higher prevalence of psychotic experiences at age 18 years.	No significant association was found between pure bully status and psychotic experiences.	Bully/victims were at increased risk for psychotic experiences at age 18 years.	8
Somatic problems	Those who were victimised were more likely to have bodily pain and headache. Frequent victimisation in childhood was associated with poor general health at ages 23 and 50. Moreover, pure victims reported slow recovery from illness in young adulthood.	No significant association was found between health and pure bully status.	Bully/victims were more likely to have poor general health and bodily pain and develop serious illness in young adulthood. They also reported poorer health status and slow recovery from illness.	56 57 65
Substance use	No significant relationship was found between victimisation and drug use, but being frequently victimised predicted daily heavy smoking.	Bullies were more likely to use illicit drugs and tobacco and to get drunk.	Bully/victim status did not significantly predict substance use but bully/victims were more likely to use tobacco.	57 59 65 66
Suicidality/self-harm	Results were mixed regarding suicidality and victimisation status. Some showed that all types of frequent victimisation increased the risk of suicidal ideation and attempts. Experiencing many types of victimisation was related to a higher risk for suicidality. However, others only found an association between suicidality and frequent victimisation among girls.	No significant association was found between being a bully and future suicidality.	Male bully/victims were at increased risk for suicidality in young adulthood.	9 56 67 68
Wealth
Academic achievement	Generally, victims had lower educational qualifications and earnings into adulthood.	Bullies were more likely to have lower educational qualifications.	Bully/victims were more likely to have a lower education.	56 65 69
Employment	Some found no significant association between occupation status and victimisation, whereas others showed that frequent victimisation was associated with poor financial management and trouble with keeping a stable job, being unemployed and earning less than peers.	Bullies were more likely to have trouble keeping a job and honouring financial obligations. They were more likely to be unemployed.	Bully/victims had trouble with keeping a job and honouring financial obligations.	56 57
Social relationships
Peer relationships	Frequently victimised children had trouble making or keeping friends and were less likely to meet up with friends at age 50.	Pure bullies had trouble making or keeping friends.	Bully/victims were at increased risk for not having a best friend and had trouble with making or keeping friends.	56 57
Partnership	Being a victim of bullying in childhood was not associated with becoming a young parent. Frequent victimisation increased the risk of living without a spouse or partner and receiving less social support at age 50.	When bully/victims were separated from bullies, pure bully status did not have a significant association with becoming a young father (under the age of 22). However, pure bullies were more likely to become young mothers (under the age of 20). No significant association between bully status and cohabitation status was found.	Being a bully/victim in childhood increased the likelihood of becoming a young parent. No significant association between bully/victim and cohabitation status was found.	65 70 71