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. 2015 Aug 31;2:60. doi: 10.3389/fmed.2015.00060

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Copyright © 2015 Mutsaers, Stribos, Glorieux, Vanholder and Olinga.

This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (CC BY). The use, distribution or reproduction in other forums is permitted, provided the original author(s) or licensor are credited and that the original publication in this journal is cited, in accordance with accepted academic practice. No use, distribution or reproduction is permitted which does not comply with these terms.

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The profibrotic effects of indoxyl sulfate. Schematic presentation of the pathophysiological mechanisms via which indoxyl sulfate promotes fibrogenesis in renal cells. Furthermore, similar effects have been described for other protein-bound uremic retention solutes, e.g., p-cresyl sulfate. See text for details. Chemical structure obtained from the Human Metabolome Database (www.hmdb.ca). α-SMA, α-smooth muscle actin; EMT, epithelial-to-mesenchymal transition; PAI-1, plasminogen activator inhibitor-1; COL1A1, alpha-1 type I collagen; ROS, reactive oxygen species; TGF-β, Transforming growth factor-β; TIMP-1, tissue inhibitor of metalloproteinases-1.