Table 1.
Profibrotic effects of uremic solutes.
| Solute | Chemical formula | Avg. MW | TGF-β | PAI-1 | COL1A1 | Interstitial fibrosis | Glomerular sclerosis | EMT | Senescence | Klotho | Model(s) | Reference |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Indoxyl sulfate | C8H7NO4S | 213.2 | ↑ | ↑ | ↑ | √ | √ | ↓ | In vitro/In vivo | (28, 33, 34, 38, 39, 42–44, 46, 47, 53, 54) | ||
| p-Cresyl sulfate | C7H8O4S | 188.2 | ↑ | ↑ | √ | ↓ | In vitro/In vivo | (39, 54, 57) | ||||
| p-Cresyl glucuronide | C13H16O7 | 284.3 | √ | In vitro | (56) | |||||||
| Hippuric acid | C9H9NO3 | 179.2 | √ | In vivo | (60) | |||||||
| Indole-3-acetic acid | C10H9NO2 | 175.2 | ↑ | √ | √ | In vitro/In vivo | (28, 60) | |||||
| Leptin | Protein | ↑ | ↑ | In vitro/In vivo | (66 –68) | |||||||
| Marino- bufagenin | C24H32O5 | 400.5 | ↑ | √ | √ | In vitro/In vivo | (76) |
↑ increased expression; ↓ decrease expression; √ induced.
Avg. MW, average molecular weight; COL1A1, alpha-1 type I collagen; EMT, epithelial-to-mesenchymal transition; PAI-1, plasminogen activator inhibitor-1; TGF-β, transforming growth factor-β.