Figure 2.

Hypothesized model of the general stress system in the honey bee. The brain biogenic amines (OA) and dopamine (DA), acting as neurotransmitters or neuromodulators, would increase arousal, cognitive processes and sensitivity to various stimuli. Then, neurosecretory cells of the corpora cardiaca (CC), would release metabolically active hormones into the hemolymph. These may include corazonin (Crz), adipokinetic hormone (AKH), and possibly diuretic hormone-I (DH). This cocktail of hormones mobilize energy from the midgut and the fat body (see detail in Figure 3). Activation of the octopaminergic DUM (Dorsal Unpaired Median) neurons of segmental ganglia of the ventral nerve cord would stimulate activity of skeletal and visceral muscle. Metabolic hormones like allatostatinA, tachykinin-related and insulin-related peptides can be released from peripheral neurosecretory cells, where they can modulate gut motility, and may also contribute to regulate the release of Crz, AKH and DH from the CC.