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. Author manuscript; available in PMC: 2015 Sep 1.
Published in final edited form as: Int J Gynaecol Obstet. 2015 Mar 25;130(0 3):E56–E61. doi: 10.1016/j.ijgo.2015.03.013

Table 1.

Descriptive characteristics and associations between marital violence and current contraceptive use among women in South Asia (n = 63059).a,b,c

Characteristic Total sample Current contraceptive use
Frequenciesd 		Association analyses
No current
modern
contraceptione 		Modern spacing
contraception		 Sterilization Modern
spacing
contraception		 Modern
spacing
contraception		 Sterilization Sterilization
Unweighted
sample size		 Prevalence
(95% CI)		 Distribution Distribution Distribution OR
(95% CI)f 		AOR
(95% CI)g 		OR
(95% CI)f 		AOR
(95% CI)g
Study cohort
overview		 63 059 48.1 (47.4–48.9) 14.5 (14.0–15.0) 37.4 (36.7–38.1) - - - -
  Physical marital violence
    Never 44 008 65.1 (64.3–65.9) 48.6 (47.8–49.5) 14.9 (14.3–15.5) 36.5 (35.6–37.3) 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00
    Ever 19 051 34.9 (34.1–35.7) 47.2 (46.0–48.4) 13.7 (12.9–14.5) 39.0 (37.8–40.3) 0.81
(0.75–0.88) 		1.04
(0.94–1.14)		 1.17
(1.10–1.25) 		0.99
(0.92–1.07)
  Sexual marital violence
    Never 57 693 89.9 (89.4–90.3) 47.7 (47.0–48.5) 14.1 (13.7–14.6) 38.2 (37.4–38.9) 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00
    Ever 5366 10.1 (9.7–10.6) 51.9 (49.9–53.8) 17.6 (16.1–19.1) 30.5 (28.7–32.4) 0.98
(0.87–1.10)		 1.30
(1.13–1.49) 		0.79
(0.72–0.87) 		0.79
(0.70–0.88)
    Age, y
      15–19 2727 7.0 (6.7–7.4) 85.6 (83.7–87.4) 13.2 (11.4–15.0) 1.2 (0.7–1.7) 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00
      20–24 9387 16.9 (16.4–17.3) 66.4 (65.0–67.8) 19.3 (18.1–20.4) 14.4 (13.4–15.4) 2.14
(1.81–2.53) 		1.14
(0.95–1.37)		 14.43
(9.27–22.46) 		7.67
(4.94–11.89)
      25–29 13 746 19.8 (19.4–20.3) 46.6 (45.2–47.9) 19.7 (18.6–20.8) 33.7 (32.4–35.0) 3.17
(2.69–3.74) 		1.26
(1.04–1.52)		 47.90
(31.05–73.88) 		18.48
(11.97–28.53)
      30–39 24 330 34.1 (33.6–34.6) 36.4 (35.4–37.4) 15.1 (14.4–15.9) 48.5 (47.4–49.6) 3.00
(2.55–3.53) 		1.02
(0.84–1.24)		 89.29
(57.79–137.97) 		27.88
(17.99–43.20)
      40–49 12 869 22.2 (21.6–22.7) 41.8 (40.4–43.2) 5.6 (5.0–6.2) 52.6 (51.2–54.0) 0.91
(0.75–1.09)		 0.27
(0.21–0.33) 		86.44
(55.95–133.53) 		23.08
(14.85–35.87)
Education
  None 23 789 44.9 (44.0–45.8) 51.4 (50.3–52.6) 7.7 (7.1–8.2) 40.9 (39.7–42.0) 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00
  Primary 10 315 16.7 (16.2–17.1) 44.5 (43.1–46.0) 14.3 (13.4–15.3) 41.1 (39.7–42.6) 1.73
(1.54–1.94) 		1.50
(1.33–1.70) 		1.28
(1.19–1.39) 		1.57
(1.44–1.72)
  Secondary or higher 28 955 38.4 (37.6–39.3) 45.8 (44.8–46.8) 22.5 (21.7–23.3) 31.7 (30.7–32.6) 3.42
(3.13–3.73) 		2.07
(1.83–2.33) 		0.86
(0.80–0.92) 		1.36
(1.24–1.49)
Spousal education
  None 13 956 26.8 (26.0–27.5) 52.3 (50.9–53.7) 9.3 (8.6–10.0) 38.4 (37.0–39.8) 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00
  Primary 10 462 17.2 (16.7–17.7) 45.3 (43.7–46.8) 13.0 (12.1–14.0) 41.7 (40.2–43.2) 1.53
(1.36–1.73) 		1.18
(1.04–1.35) 		1.29
(1.18–1.40) 		1.22
(1.11–1.34)
  Secondary or higher 38 641 56.0 (55.1–56.9) 47.0 (46.2–47.9) 17.4 (16.8–18.1) 35.6 (34.7–36.4) 2.66
(2.41–2.93) 		1.15
(1.02–1.30) 		0.95
(0.88–1.02)		 0.93
(0.85–1.03)
Wealth quintile
  Poorest 8619 18.2 (17.5–19.0) 61.2 (59.6–62.8) 8.3 (7.4–9.1) 30.5 (29.0–32.1) 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00
  Poorer 9833 19.3 (18.7–19.8) 52.6 (51.1–54.0) 9.9 (9.1–10.8) 37.5 (36.0–38.9) 1.40
(1.22–1.60) 		1.30
(1.13–1.51) 		1.43
(1.31–1.57) 		1.54
(1.38–1.72)
  Middle 12 001 19.8 (19.2–20.4) 47.4 (45.9–48.9) 10.8 (9.9–11.6) 41.8 (40.4–43.3) 1.69
(1.46–1.94) 		1.47
(1.26–1.71) 		1.77
(1.61–1.95) 		2.06
(1.82–2.33)
  Richer 14 409 20.7 (20.0–21.4) 42.4 (41.0–43.9) 15.2 (14.2–16.3) 42.4 (40.9–43.8) 2.71
(2.35–3.11) 		1.90
(1.62–2.24) 		1.99
(1.80–2.20) 		2.38
(2.08–2.71)
  Richest 18 197 22.0 (21.2–22.8) 39.5 (38.2–40.7) 26.3 (25.2–27.4) 34.2 (32.9–35.6) 5.47
(4.83–6.20) 		3.22
(2.69–3.84) 		1.68
(1.52–1.86) 		2.01
(1.72–2.36)
Residence
  Rural 35 472 69.3 (68.6–69.9) 51.3 (50.4–52.2) 11.5 (11.0–12.1) 37.2 (36.3–38.1) 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00
  Urban 27 587 30.7 (30.1–31.4) 41.0 (39.8–42.2) 21.1 (20.2–22.1) 37.9 (36.7–39.1) 2.64
(2.43–2.87) 		1.42
(1.28–1.58) 		1.21
(1.13–1.30) 		0.95
(0.86–1.05)
  Parental marital violence
    No 51 565 79.6 (78.9–80.3) 48.6 (47.8–49.4) 14.8 (14.3–15.3) 36.6 (35.8–37.4) 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00
    Yes 11 494 20.4 (19.7–21.1) 46.4 (44.9–47.9) 13.2 (12.3–14.1) 40.4 (38.9–41.8) 0.85
(0.78–0.93) 		1.01
(0.92–1.12)		 1.20
(1.12–1.29) 		1.36
(1.25–1.48)
Age at marriage, y
  <15 11 303 23.1 (22.5–23.7) 45.0 (43.6–46.4) 13.2 (12.4–14.1) 41.7 (40.4–43.1) 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00
  15–17 21 251 38.2 (37.6–38.8) 48.4 (47.3–49.5) 12.2 (11.6–12.9) 39.4 (38.3–40.5) 1.17
(1.06–1.30) 		1.02
(0.91–1.14)		 0.77
(0.72–0.83) 		0.80
(0.73–0.87)
  ≥18 30 505 38.7 (38.0–39.5) 49.8 (48.8–50.7) 17.5 (16.7–18.2) 32.8 (31.8–33.7) 1.96
(1.77–2.17) 		1.24
(1.10–1.40) 		0.59
(0.55–0.64) 		0.55
(0.51–0.61)
Relationship to household head
  Daughter-in-law 9789 18.4 (17.8–18.9) 58.0 (56.5–59.6) 20.0 (18.8–21.2) 21.9 (20.6–23.3) 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00
  Head 3310 4.8 (4.5–5.1) 61.6 (58.8–64.4) 5.9 (4.8–7.0) 32.5 (29.7–35.3) 0.22
(0.18–0.28) 		0.24
(0.19–0.32) 		1.53
(1.32–1.78) 		0.65
(0.55–0.77)
  Wife 46 046 66.4 (65.7–67.1) 41.4 (40.6–42.2) 13.7 (13.2–14.2) 44.9 (44.0–45.8) 0.81
(0.74–0.88) 		1.00
(0.90–1.10)		 3.06
(2.81–3.32) 		1.50
(1.36–1.64)
  Daughter 2353 6.3 (5.9–6.6) 72.4 (69.9–74.9) 12.3 (10.5–14.1) 15.3 (13.3–17.2) 0.42
(0.34–0.51) 		0.48
(0.39–0.59) 		0.59
(0.50–0.71) 		0.77
(0.64–0.93)
  Other 1561 4.2 (3.9–4.5) 59.8 (56.2–63.4) 15.7 (12.8–18.5) 24.5 (21.5–27.5) 0.66
(0.52–0.84) 		0.71
(0.55–0.91) 		1.14
(0.95–1.37)		 0.87
(0.71–1.07)
Son preference
  Yes 13 655 23.9 (23.3–24.5) 53.1 (51.7–54.5) 10.3 (9.5–11.0) 36.6 (35.2–38.0) 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00
  No 49 404 76.1 (75.5–76.7) 46.6 (45.8–47.3) 15.8 (15.3–16.4) 37.6 (36.9–38.4) 1.58
(1.44–1.73) 		1.23
(1.11–1.37) 		1.22
(1.14–1.31) 		1.65
(1.53–1.78)
Living sons
  0 14 222 23.5 (23.0–24.1) 75.4 (74.3–76.5) 13.8 (12.9–14.6) 10.9 (10.1–11.6) 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00
  1 24 042 36.8 (36.2–37.4) 44.8 (43.8–45.9) 18.6 (17.8–19.4) 36.6 (35.5–37.6) 2.25
(2.06–2.46) 		2.54
(2.31–2.79) 		5.69
(5.22–6.21) 		3.85
(3.53–4.21)
  ≥2 24 795 39.7 (39.0–40.3) 35.0 (33.9–36.2) 11.1 (10.5–11.7) 53.9 (52.7–55.1) 1.62
(1.47–1.79) 		3.22
(2.87–3.62) 		11.02
(10.03–12.10) 		7.52
(6.79–8.33)
Living daughters
  0 19 922 30.5 (30.0–31.1) 59.9 (58.8–60.9) 14.5 (13.8–15.3) 25.6 (24.7–26.5) 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00
  1 24 275 36.7 (36.2–37.3) 41.4 (40.4–42.5) 16.3 (15.6–17.0) 42.3 (41.2–43.3) 1.58
(1.45–1.71) 		1.77
(1.62–1.95) 		2.41
(2.27–2.56) 		1.99
(1.86–2.13)
  ≥2 18 862 32.8 (32.2–33.3) 44.7 (43.5–45.9) 12.4 (11.7–13.2) 42.9 (41.6–44.1) 1.09
(1.00–1.20)		 1.89
(1.70–2.11) 		2.28
(2.13–2.45) 		1.58
(1.44–1.72)

Abbreviations: AOR, adjusted odds ratio; CI, confidence interval; OR, odds ratio.

a

Values given as number or percentage (95% CI), unless otherwise indicated.

b

The present analysis included married women aged 15–49 years who were not pregnant at the time of completing the Demographic and Health Survey. The breakdown by country was as follows: Bangladesh (n = 3665), India (n = 56 357), and Nepal (n = 3037).

c

Multinomial regression analyses were used to conduct ORs and AORs, with 95% confidence intervals to determine significance. Significant effects are noted by bolding in text.

d

Row percentages presented.

e

Reference category.

f

Adjusted for country fixed effects.

g

Adjusted for country fixed effects and all variables shown in the column.