Table 1.
Summary of exposure-response functions (ERFs) used in the study.
| Factor | Health endpoint | Age group | Type of ERF | ERF | Details and references |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| PM2.5 | Natural-cause mortality | 30+ | HR | 1.07 (95% CI 1.02–1.13) | Change in hazard rate per 5 µg/m3 change in PM2.5 concentration. Adopted from Beelen et al., (2013); Table 4, model 3. |
| PM2.5, PM2.5–10 | New cases of chronic bronchitis | 30+ | UR | 5.33×10−5 (−0.17×10−5–11.3×10−5) | New cases of chronic bronchitis per year per persons per 1 µg/m3 change in PM10concentration. UR is adopted from the CAFE (Hurley et al., 2005), which calculated URs based on the Abbey et al. (1993). Uncertainty range from CAFE. |
| PM2.5 | Restricted activity days (RADs) | 15–64 | UR | 0.090 (0.079–1.013) | RADs per person per 1 µg/m3 change in PM2.5 concentration. Adopted from CAFE (Hurley et al., 2005) and based on OSTRO (1987). Uncertainty range from CAFE. |
| PM2.5, PM2.5–10 | LRS days for school children | 5–14 | UR | 0.186 (0.186–0.277) | Extra symptoms days per year per child aged 5–14, per 1 µg/m3 change in PM10. Adopted from CAFE (Hurley et al., 2005) and based on RR from Ward and Ayres (2004). Uncertainty range from CAFE. |
| PM2.5, PM2.5–10 | LRS days for adults | 15+ | UR | 0.13 (0.015–0.243) | Extra symptom days per year per adult with chronic respiratory symptoms per 1 µg/m3 change in PM10 concentration. Adopted from CAFE (Hurley et al., 2005) and based on the meta-analysis done in the CAFE project. Uncertainty range from CAFE. |
| NOx | Natural-cause mortality | 30+ | HR | 1.02 (95% CI 1.00–1.04) | Change in hazard rate per 20 µg/m3 change in NOx concentration. Adopted from Beelen et al. (2013); model 3 results for NOx in Table 4. |
| SO2 | Lung cancer | All | RR | 1.01 (0.94–1.08) | RR for developing lung cancer per 10 µg/m3 increase in SO2 concentration. Based on Nafstad et al. (2003). |
| BaP | Lung cancer | All | UR | 8.7×10−5 (1.0×10−5–10×10−5) | A life time risk of developing lung cancer per ng/m3 change in BaP concentration. Based on World Health Organization (2000) Air Quality guidelines for Europe. Uncertainty range from Bostrom et al. (2002). |
| Cd | Lung cancer | All | UR | 1.8 ×10−3 (1.0×10−3–1.8×10−3) | A life time risk of developing lung cancer per µg/m3 change in Cd concentration. Based on ExternE (Bickel and Friedrich, 2005). Uncertainty based on the Takenaka et al., (1983) and author judgment. |
| Ni | Lung cancer | All | UR | 2.4×10−4 (1.1×10−5–2.4×10−4) | A life time risk of developing lung cancer per µg/m3 change in Ni concentration. Based on United States Environmental Protection Agency, n.d. IRIS database. Uncertainty based on Peto et al. (1984) and Chovil et al. (1981). |
| Pb | Mild Mental Retardation (MMR) | 0–1 | Specific, see text for details. | Specific, see text for details. | Method from Fewtrell et al., (2003), dose–response data from Schwartz (1994). |
| Pb | Cardiovascular disease | 15–79 | RR | See Table S5 (Supplementary material). | Method from Fewtrell et al., (2003). Based on Pruss-Ustun et al., (2004). |
| Traffic injuries | Fatalities and injuries | All | Specific, see text for details. | Specific, see text for details. | - |
| Noise | Cardiovascular disease | All | OR | See Table S6 (Supplementary material) for details. | Data, method and RRs from Babisch, (2006) and World Health Organization (2011). |
| Noise | Sleep-disturbance | All | Specific, see text for details. | Specific, see text for details. | Method and ERF from World Health Organization (2011). |
| Noise | Highly annoyed | All | Specific, see text for details. | Specific, see text for details. | Method from World Health Organization (2011). Exposure-response function from Miedema and Oudshoorn (2001). |
| Physical activity | All-cause mortality | All | RR | 0.90 (0.85–0.95) for walking and 0.90 (0.86–0.94) for cycling | Dose–response function from Kelly et al. (2014). RR׳s are for 11.25 METhs per week. |