Table 6.
Structural Equation Model Results by Grade
| Grade | Outcome | Predictors | Estimate | SE | Est./SE | Standardized | p-value |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| 4 | Reading comprehension | Syntax | 3.45 | 0.49 | 7.11 | 0.50 | 0.00 |
| R2 = .979 | Vocabulary | 0.85 | 0.68 | 1.25 | 0.12 | 0.21 | |
| Oral language | 5.13 | 0.75 | 6.84 | 0.75 | 0.00 | ||
| Decoding fluency | 1.46 | 0.87 | 1.68 | 0.21 | 0.09 | ||
| Decoding fluency | Syntax | −0.24 | 0.18 | −1.40 | −0.24 | 0.16 | |
| Vocabulary | 0.43 | 0.08 | 5.70 | 0.43 | 0.00 | ||
| Oral language | 0.44 | 0.11 | 4.22 | 0.44 | 0.00 | ||
| 5 | Reading comprehension | Syntax | 0.36 | 0.53 | 0.68 | 0.16 | 0.50 |
| R2 = .812 | Vocabulary | 0.38 | 0.53 | 0.72 | 0.17 | 0.47 | |
| Oral language | 1.76 | 0.57 | 3.06 | 0.76 | 0.00 | ||
| Decoding fluency | 0.31 | 0.72 | 0.42 | 0.13 | 0.67 | ||
| Decoding fluency | Syntax | 0.33 | 0.11 | 3.07 | 0.33 | 0.00 | |
| Vocabulary | 0.43 | 0.12 | 3.50 | 0.43 | 0.00 | ||
| Oral language | 0.63 | 0.08 | 7.68 | 0.63 | 0.00 | ||
| 6 | Reading comprehension | Syntax | −0.19 | 0.14 | −1.36 | −0.10 | 0.17 |
| R2 = .720 | Vocabulary | 0.15 | 0.17 | 0.86 | 0.08 | 0.39 | |
| Oral language | 1.37 | 0.26 | 5.29 | 0.72 | 0.00 | ||
| Decoding fluency | 0.32 | 0.19 | 1.62 | 0.17 | 0.10 | ||
| Decoding fluency | Syntax | −0.06 | 0.10 | −0.63 | −0.06 | 0.53 | |
| Vocabulary | 0.29 | 0.12 | 2.52 | 0.29 | 0.01 | ||
| Oral language | 0.59 | 0.07 | 8.57 | 0.59 | 0.00 | ||
| 7 | Reading comprehension | Syntax | −0.24 | 0.22 | −1.11 | −0.07 | 0.27 |
| R2 = .918 | Vocabulary | 0.62 | 0.30 | 2.09 | 0.18 | 0.04 | |
| Oral language | 3.20 | 0.43 | 7.44 | 0.92 | 0.00 | ||
| Decoding fluency | 0.12 | 0.26 | 0.45 | 0.03 | 0.65 | ||
| Decoding fluency | Syntax | −0.05 | 0.09 | −0.55 | −0.05 | 0.59 | |
| Vocabulary | 0.13 | 0.10 | 1.35 | 0.13 | 0.18 | ||
| Oral language | 0.66 | 0.06 | 11.36 | 0.66 | 0.00 | ||
| 8 | Reading comprehension | Syntax | 0.10 | 1.20 | 0.08 | 0.01 | 0.94 |
| R2 = .983 | Vocabulary | 1.83 | 1.69 | 1.08 | 0.24 | 0.28 | |
| Oral language | 6.65 | 1.93 | 3.44 | 0.87 | 0.00 | ||
| Decoding fluency | 1.21 | 1.65 | 0.74 | 0.16 | 0.46 | ||
| Decoding fluency | Syntax | 0.89 | 0.45 | 1.98 | 0.89 | 0.05 | |
| Vocabulary | 0.30 | 0.20 | 1.49 | 0.30 | 0.14 | ||
| Oral language | 0.40 | 0.14 | 2.85 | 0.40 | 0.00 | ||
| 9 | Reading comprehension | Syntax | −2.40 | 1.42 | −1.69 | −0.16 | 0.09 |
| R2 = .995 | Vocabulary | −3.45 | 1.85 | −1.87 | −0.24 | 0.06 | |
| Oral language | 12.71 | 1.65 | 7.72 | 0.87 | 0.00 | ||
| Decoding fluency | 2.49 | 1.66 | 1.51 | 0.17 | 0.13 | ||
| Decoding fluency | Syntax | 0.26 | 0.15 | 1.70 | 0.26 | 0.09 | |
| Vocabulary | 0.32 | 0.10 | 3.14 | 0.32 | 0.00 | ||
| Oral language | 0.58 | 0.07 | 8.77 | 0.58 | 0.00 | ||
| 10 | Reading comprehension | Syntax | −0.90 | 1.20 | −0.74 | −0.18 | 0.46 |
| R2 = .960 | Vocabulary | 1.09 | 1.59 | 0.69 | 0.22 | 0.49 | |
| Oral language | 4.82 | 1.84 | 2.62 | 0.96 | 0.01 | ||
| Decoding fluency | −0.16 | 1.55 | −0.10 | −0.03 | 0.92 | ||
| Decoding fluency | Syntax | −0.02 | 0.28 | −0.08 | −0.02 | 0.93 | |
| Vocabulary | 0.10 | 0.28 | 0.37 | 0.10 | 0.71 | ||
| Oral language | 0.60 | 0.13 | 4.45 | 0.60 | 0.00 |
Note. Nonsignificant residual variances were constrained to 0 (Comprehensive Assessment of Spoken Language (CASL) in grades 7, 9, and 10; Study Aid and Reading Assessment (SARA) Morphology in grade 4; SARA Vocabulary in grade 7) to improve model fit. A nonsignificant error covariance between Test of Word Reading Efficiency (TOWRE) Sight Word Efficiency Form A and B in grade 7 was also removed from the model specification to improve fit.