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. 2015 Sep 4;6:177. doi: 10.3389/fphar.2015.00177

FIGURE 1.

FIGURE 1

GPCR stimulation and cAMP signaling. Ligand-induced activation of a GPCR dissociates heterotrimeric G proteins and activates the adenylyl cyclase (AC) through Gαs subunit (Rosenbaum et al., 2009). AC converts ATP into cAMP. cAMP binding to regulatory (R) subunits of AKAP-assembled PKA dissociates the holoenzyme and activates the catalytic (C) subunits (Taylor et al., 2005). Phosphorylation of cellular substrates by C evokes plenty of biological responses. Phosphodiesterases (PDEs) converts the cAMP in 5′-AMP and decrease cAMP signaling (Maurice et al., 2014). Dephosphorylation of substrates by protein phosphatases (PPs) contributes to attenuate the signal (Zhang et al., 2013).