Table 1.
Characteristics of participants and association with under-utilization of antenatal care, Timor-Leste
| Factors | n (%) | ANC ≥ 4 | ANC <4a | P* |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| External Environment | ||||
| Residence | <0.001 | |||
| Urban | 1351 (24.6) | 821 (28.2) | 530 (20.2) | |
| Rural | 4544 (75.4) | 2490 (71.8) | 2054 (79.8) | |
| Predisposing Factors | ||||
| Socio-demographic | ||||
| Maternal age (years) | <0.001 | |||
| 15–19 | 185 (2.9) | 103 (2.8) | 82 (3.0) | |
| 20–34 | 3518 (60.5) | 2066 (63.4) | 1452 (56.9) | |
| 35–49 | 2192 (36.6) | 1142 (33.8) | 1050 (40.1) | |
| Wealth status | <0.001 | |||
| Low (lower 40 %) | 2512 (39.9) | 1141 (31.2) | 1371 (50.7) | |
| Middle (middle 40 %) | 2407 (39.3) | 1499 (43.0) | 908 (34.7) | |
| High (upper 20 %) | 976 (20.8) | 671 (25.8) | 305 (14.6) | |
| Maternal education | <0.001 | |||
| No education | 1980 (32.8) | 904 (26.6) | 1076 (40.5) | |
| Primary | 189 (27.5) | 942 (26.9) | 747 (28.3) | |
| Secondary or higher | 2226 (39.6) | 1465 (46.6) | 761 (31.1) | |
| Paternal education | <0.001 | |||
| No education | 1658 (27.9) | 748 (22.2) | 910 (35.1) | |
| Primary | 1668 (27.4) | 945 (27.5) | 723 (27.3) | |
| Secondary or higher | 2558 (44.6) | 1613 (50.3) | 945 (37.6) | |
| Maternal occupation | <0.001 | |||
| No paid work | 3536 (61.0) | 1965 (59.7) | 1571 (62.7) | |
| Agriculture | 1551 (24.5) | 813 (23.1) | 738 (26.2) | |
| Paid work (professional, clerical, sales, service, business) | 675 (11.9) | 445 (14.1) | 230 (9.2) | |
| Paid work (manual) | 125 (2.6) | 85 (3.1) | 40 (1.9) | |
| Religion | 0.597 | |||
| Roman Catholic | 5770 (98.0) | 3247 (98.1) | 2523 (97.8) | |
| Others | 125 (2.0) | 64 (1.9) | 61 (2.2) | |
| Maternal final say on her own health care | 0.388 | |||
| Herself | 1391 (23.0) | 770 (22.9) | 621 (23.2) | |
| Herself and others | 3610 (64.2) | 2076 (65.0) | 1534 (63.2) | |
| Others | 683 (12.8) | 372 (12.1) | 311 (13.6) | |
| Birth order | <0.001 | |||
| 1 | 853 (14.3) | 517 (15.5) | 336 (12.9) | |
| 2–3 | 1655 (29.1) | 969 (30.6) | 686 (27.2) | |
| ≥4 | 3387 (56.6) | 1825 (53.9) | 1562 (60.0) | |
| Health knowledge | ||||
| Frequency of watching television | <0.001 | |||
| Not at all | 3743 (59.9) | 1913 (53.0) | 1830 (68.4) | |
| Less than once a week | 516 (8.4) | 323 (9.2) | 193 (7.5) | |
| At least once a week | 1636 (31.7) | 1075 (37.9) | 561 (24.1) | |
| Enabling Factors | ||||
| Permission to visit health facility | <0.001 | |||
| Big problem | 1379 (22.3) | 646 (18.2) | 733 (27.4) | |
| Not a big problem | 4515 (77.7) | 2665 (81.8) | 1850 (72.6) | |
| Money to pay for health services | <0.001 | |||
| Big problem | 2266 (35.1) | 1108 (30.1) | 1158 (41.2) | |
| Not a big problem | 3629 (64.9) | 2203 (69.9) | 1426 (58.8) | |
| Distance to health facility | <0.001 | |||
| Big problem | 3493 (56.0) | 1811 (51.1) | 1682 (62.1) | |
| Not a big problem | 2400 (44.0) | 1498 (48.9) | 902 (37.9) | |
| Transportation to go to seek service | <0.001 | |||
| Big problem | 3625 (61.6) | 1892 (57.2) | 1734 (67.1) | |
| Not a big problem | 2269 (38.4) | 1419 (42.8) | 850 (32.9) | |
| Presence of companion | 0.002 | |||
| Big problem | 2594 (42.5) | 1361 (40.3) | 1233 (45.3) | |
| Not a big problem | 3301 (57.5) | 1950 (59.7) | 1351 (54.7) | |
| Availability of care by female health workers | 0.004 | |||
| Big problem | 3844 (64.1) | 2101 (61.9) | 1743 (66.7) | |
| Not a big problem | 2051 (35.9) | 1210 (38.1) | 841 (33.3) | |
| Need Factors | ||||
| Pregnancy complications | 0.451 | |||
| No complication | 332 (5.7) | 181 (6.0) | 151 (5.4) | |
| With complications | 5563 (94.3) | 3130 (94.0) | 2433 (94.6) | |
| Desire for children | 0.993 | |||
| Wanted then | 5000 (84.4) | 2816 (84.4) | 2184 (84.3) | |
| Wanted later | 676 (12.3) | 376 (12.3) | 300 (12.3) | |
| Unwanted | 219 (3.3) | 119 (3.3) | 100 (3.4) |
*Chi-square test of association
aUnder-utilization of ANC