Extended Data Figure 1. Models for homeostatic regulation of learning food preferences and food-seeking behaviors.

a, The relationship between internal or external cues and Pavlovian approach or instrumental food-seeking actions is strengthened by nutrient ingestion. Nutrients have intrinsically positive valence⁷ (rewarding), and energy deficit enhances the reward value of outcomes associated with food intake. b, Model of food preference and food-seeking in which learning involves reducing an energy deficit internal state that has negative valence. The relationship between internal or external cues and food preferences or food-seeking actions is strengthened by nutrient ingestion outcomes that reduce energy deficit and associated negative valence (red bar arrows are inhibitory). Conversely, the relationship between internal or external cues and food preference or food-seeking actions is weakened if outcomes do not reduce energy deficit.