TABLE 1:
Description of the dairy production types in the UK and France considered in this study
| Country | Farm types | Description |
|---|---|---|
| The UK | Spring-calving closed farms (SC) | The majority of cows (80%) calve between February and May. Cows have a lower than national average milk yield per year and a 'hardier constituency' compared with very high-yielding herds. Feeding is predominantly grass with few concentrates. Most herds are closed, i.e. replacement is done using own calves. For this, all cows are mated with dairy bulls and most female heifers are used for replacement |
| Autumn-calving open farms (AOC) | The majority of cows (80%) calve between August and November. These farms require an essential housing infrastructure and an increased amount of concentrate. Cows have a higher than national average milk yield, and milk price during the period of highest production is at the annual peak. Replacement 50% from own heifers and 50% buying heifers from outside. The first two services a cow receives are done using dairy bull semen; subsequent services using beef bull semen (about 40% of calves born from beef bulls) | |
| Autumn-calving closed farms (ACC) | Similar to AOC, but with the difference that all replacements are bred and raised in the same farm. Therefore, all cows are inseminated by dairy bulls and nearly all heifers used for replacement. The 365-day calving rate in these farms is assumed to be higher than in open herds. | |
| All-year-round open farms (AYOC) | Cows calve anytime during the year. Fertility is poorer than in the autumn- and spring-calving systems and the replacement rate is consequently higher. Replacement through own heifers (50% of replacements) and by purchasing heifers from other farms. The first two services a cow receives are done using dairy bull semen; subsequent services using beef bull semen (about 40% of calves born are from beef bulls) | |
| All-year-round closed farms (AYCC) | Similar to AYOC, but with the difference that the replacement is done using only own heifers. All cows are mated with dairy bulls and almost all heifers are used for replacement. These farms are assumed to have better breeding performance and therefore a higher calving rate than open farms | |
| France | Lowland with corn silage (LC) | All-year-round calving; sometimes a calving peak may be seen in a proportion of the herd. High milk yield and high cost of production. Corn silage as main forage, normally all year long. Often zero-grazing system for cows in milk. A big part of concentrates needed is soy bean meal or derivates (bought). Poor fertility and high replacement rate. Replacement is mainly done using own heifers, but also purchasing of heifers from other farms. Only cows with reproduction issues are mated with beef artificial insemination (AI) (negligible) |
| Lowland with corn silage and grass (LCG) | Similar to LC, but grass is used in spring and fall, and sometimes all summer long (depending on area). It allows reducing the feed costs. Production remains high | |
| Upland with corn silage and grass (UCG) | Relies predominantly on grass, even if corn silage is available at least for winter (quantity available is limited). Production level is lower compared with LCG. Beef AI can be used to increase the calf selling prices. Variable price of milk compared with national level | |
| Upland with grass Massif Central (UGMC) | Located in mountains, centre of France. Mainly based on grass/hay. None or limited use of grass or corn silage. Both Holstein (with low production) and Montbéliarde breeds are used. Standard production (i.e. the same price applies for milk here and in the lowlands) and high-quality production (Protected Area Designation cheese, higher price of milk). Use of beef bull or bull AI is important (often up to 50% of cows) | |
| Upland with grass Franche-Comté (UGFC) | Located in mountains, east of France. Mainly based on grass/hay. Silage forbidden for cheese production. The production is highly specialised in high-quality products (Protected Area Designation cheese Comté) with Montbéliarde only and no use of beef bull crossing or AI. Higher price of milk compared with national level |