Fig. S7.

A schematic representation of inputs, outputs, and outcomes of biomedical research. The biomedical research enterprise is self-reinforcing as the number of research tools, skilled scientists, and job opportunities all grow with new discoveries. Basic research without immediate practicality has led to some of history’s most impactful discoveries, and it is impossible to predict the long-term outcomes of most basic research. A limitation of this study is the difficulty in quantifying the benefits of basic research that have yet to translate into useful applications. Invalid scientific research can be considered a drain on the entire system by funneling limited resources into perceived outputs that fail to translate to outcomes. Certain practical outcomes, such as new therapeutics and research tools, are easier to quantify than more general societal benefits, which are influenced by many variables.