Table 1.
Vector biology and ecology data from ICEMR field sites
| ICEMR regional center | Specific site | Plasmodium spp. | Major vector(s) | Trap type | Primary behaviors (exo/endo/phagic/philic) | Main control method | Transmission seasonality | EIR (per year) |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Malawi | Blantyre District (urban) | Pf | Anopheles funestus s.s., Anopheles arabiensis | CDC, ASP | Endophagic, endophilic (indirect evidence) | LLIN | Rainy season (November–April), low transmission rest of year | N/A |
| Thyolo District (rural highland) | Pf | An. funestus s.s., An. arabiensis | CDC, ASP | Endophagic, endophilic (indirect evidence) | LLIN | Rainy season (November–April), low transmission rest of year | N/A | |
| Chikwawa District (rural lowland) | Pf | An. funestus s.s., An. arabiensis, Anopheles gambiae s.s. | CDC, ASP | Endophagic, endophilic (indirect evidence) | LLIN | Perennial, one annual rainy season | N/A | |
| West Africa | The Gambia | Pf | An. arabiensis, An. gambiae | HLC, CDC | Primarily endophagic and endophilic | LLIN, IRS | Rainy season (August–November) | Peak of 23/month |
| Gambissara (Upper River) | ||||||||
| Senegal | Pf | An. arabiensis | HLC | Primarily exo/ endophagic and endophilic | LLIN | Rainy season peak (August–December) | Peak of 5/month | |
| Medina Fall (Thiès) | ||||||||
| Mali | Pf | An. arabiensis, An. gambiae | HLC | Primarily endophagic and endophilic; more recently comparable frequency indoors and outdoors | LLIN | Rainy season peak (July–December) | Peak of 51/month | |
| Dangassa | ||||||||
| Koila Bamana (Dioro) | Pf | An. arabiensis, An. gambiae | HLC | Same as Dangassa | LLIN | Virtually perennial; rainy season peak plus irrigation (August–May) | Rainy season peak = 5/month | |
| South Africa | Zambia | Pf | An. funestus s.s., An. gambiae s.s. | CDC, PSC, backpack aspirator | Not evaluated | LLIN, IRS | All year with seasonal fluctuations | 8–108 for An. funestus; 0–8 for An. gambiae |
| Nchelenge District | ||||||||
| Choma District | Pf | An. arabiensis | CDC, HLC, PSC, cattle-baited trap | Exophagic, exophilic | LLIN | Single rainy season | 0 | |
| Zimbabwe | Pf | An. funestus s.s., An. gambiae s.l. | CDC, PSC | Not evaluated | LLIN, IRS | Single rainy season | 0–7 for An. funestus; N/A for An. gambiae | |
| Mutasa District | ||||||||
| East Africa | Uganda | Pf | An. arabiensis, An. gambiae s.s. | HLC, PSC/exit trap, CDC | Primarily endophagic, endophilic | ITN | Perennial, two annual rainy seasons | 4 |
| Jinja District | ||||||||
| Kanungu District | Pf | An. gambiae s.s. | HLC, PSC/exit trap, CDC | Primarily endophagic, endophilic | ITN | Perennial, two annual rainy seasons | 27 | |
| Tororo District | Pf | An. gambiae s.s. | HLC, PSC/exit trap, CDC | Primarily endophagic, endophilic | ITN | Perennial, two annual rainy seasons | 125 | |
| Amazonia | Peru | Pv, Pf | Anopheles darlingi | HLC, CDC, Shannon trap | Exophagic, exophilic | LLIN, IRS, local bed nets | Seasonal, peaks w/rainy season (March–May) | 0–86.7 |
| Loreto Department | ||||||||
| Madre de Dios Department* | Pv | Anopheles rangeli, Anopheles benarrochi B | HLC, CDC, Shannon trap | Not evaluated | ITN | Perennial, peaks w/rainy season (December–February) | Too few mosquitoes to calculate | |
| Brazil | Pv | An. darlingi | Shannon trap | Primarily exophagic, exophilic | ITN, IRS | Seasonal; minor peaks during dry season (May–September) | N/A | |
| Granada, ∼25-year-old rural settlement, Acrelandia | ||||||||
| Remansinho, ∼8-year-old settlement, Acrelandia | Pv | An. darlingi | Shannon trap | Exo/endophagic, primarily exophilic | ITN | Perennial† | N/A | |
| Latin America | Colombia | Pv, Pf | Anopheles nuneztovari, An. darlingi | HLC | Exophagic, exophilic | LLIN | Perennial | Three localities for An. nuneztovari: 3.5, 3.2, 1.9 |
| Tierralta | ||||||||
| Buenaventura | Pv, Pf | An. nuneztovari, Anopheles pseudo punctipennis, Anopheles albimanus | HLC | Exophagic, exophilic | LLIN | Perennial, modest peaks March–April, July–September | Too few mosquitoes to calculate | |
| Tumaco | Pv, Pf | An. albimanus, Anopheles calderoni | HLC | Exophagic, exophilic | LLIN, larvicide | Perennial, main peak March–April; minor peak July | 2.85 for An. calderoni | |
| South Asia | India | Pv, Pf | Anopheles stephensi, Anopheles subpictus | Mosquito magnet, CDC | Endophagic, exophilic; endophagic, endophilic | Larvicide (temephos), BTI, larvivorous fish (guppy) | All year, peaks during rainy season | 2.35 overall for An. stephensi in multiple localities in Goa; 18.1 for Panaji (within Goa) alone |
| Goa | ||||||||
| Wardha | Pv, Pf | Anopheles culicifacies | Hand catch | Endophilic, endophagic | IRS | All year, peaks during rainy season | Unreported | |
| Ranchi | Pv, Pf | An. culicifacies, Anopheles fluviatilis | Hand catch | Endophilic, endophagic | LLIN, IRS | An. culicifacies all year, peaks post rainy season (southwest monsoons); An. fluviatilis peaks February–March | Unreported | |
| Assam | Pv, Pf, Po, Pm | Anopheles baimaii, Anopheles minimus | CDC | Exophilic, exo/endophagic; exo/endophagic | LLIN, ITN, IRS | All year, peaks during rainy season | Unreported | |
| Chennai | Pv, Pf | An. stephensi | IRC, PSC | Endo/exophilic (variable; mainly based on microenvironmental conditions) endophagic; exophagic during summer | Larvicide (temephos) | Perennial, mesoendemic, southwest and northeast monsoon (predominantly NE) | Unreported | |
| Raurkela | Pv, Pf, Pm | An. fluviatilis, An. culicifacies | IRC | An. fluviatilis classically endophilic and endophagic w/ evidence of switch toward exophily (cattle sheds) and more exophagy (zoophagy). An. culicifacies strongly zoophilic (rests, feeds in cattle sheds); any human feeding tends to be endophagic | IRS, LLIN | Perennial, meso-hyperendemic, peak in winter | 7.3–127 seasonally dependent | |
| Nadiad | Pv, Pf | An. culicifacies A and C in rural areas | IRC, PSC | Endophilic, endophagic | Larvicide, biological control, IRS, LLIN, ITN | Seasonal, hypoendemic (unstable malaria) | 0.05–0.21 | |
| Southeast Asia | China | Pv, Pf | An. minimus, Anopheles maculatus, Anopheles sinensis | CDC aspirator | Exo/endophilic; strongly zoophilic, exophagic | ITN, IRS | Perennial, one rainy season | 0.10 |
| Yingjiang County, Yunnan Province | ||||||||
| Myanmar | Pv, Pf | An. minimus, An. maculatus, An. sinensis | CDC | Exo/endophilic; strongly zoophilic, exophagic | LLIN, IRS | Perennial, one rainy season | 0.53 | |
| Laiza, Kachin State | ||||||||
| Thailand | Pv, Pf | An. minimus, An. maculatus, Anopheles annularis | CDC aspirator | Exo/endophilic | LLIN, IRS | Perennial, one rainy season | 0.25 | |
| Tha Song Yang District, Tak Province | ||||||||
| Southwest Pacific | PNG | Pv, Pf, Po, Pm | Anopheles punctulatus complex | HLC, barrier screens | Exo/endophilic | LLIN | Perennial, one to two rainy seasons | 10.1–27.8 |
| East Sepik Province | ||||||||
| Madang Province | Pv, Pf, Po, Pm | Anopheles farauti | HLC, barrier screens | Exo/endophilic | LLIN | Perennial, peak in rainy season | 40.8 | |
| Solomon Islands | Pv, Pf, Po, Pm | An. farauti | HLC, barrier screens | Exophilic | LLIN | Perennial, peak in rainy season | 3–44 | |
| Central Province and Western Province |
ASP = battery powered aspirator of the Prokopack or Insectazooka type; CDC = Centers for Disease Control and Prevention; EIR = entomological inoculation rate; HLC = human landing catch; ICEMR = International Centers for Excellence in Malaria Research; IR = infection rate (in vector); IRS = indoor residual spray; IRC = indoor resting collections; LLIN = long-lasting insecticide-impregnated net; PNG = Papua New Guinea; PSC = pyrethroid spray catch; Pf = Plasmodium falciparum; Pm = Plasmodium malariae; Po = Plasmodium ovale; Pv = Plasmodium vivax; N/A = Not applicable.
Locality numbers in Column 2 correspond to numbers in Figure 1.
*
Malaria cases in Madre de Dios Department have steadily declined since 2011. In 2013, there were 251 cases (MINSA, Peru, 2013).
†
Malaria (P. vivax) is disappearing in Remansinho (2010–2013).24