Table 3.

Individual Graphic Warning Labels’ Effectiveness Relative to Current Text-only Warnings, by Group (Betas)

		18–25 year olds					26+ year olds
	Outcome	Gen Pop, n = 602	AA, n = 600	Hisp, n = 600	Low Edu, n = 962	All, n = 2203a	Gen Pop, n = 644	AA, n = 600	Hisp, n = 600	Low Edu, n = 828	All, n = 2285a
L1 Harm Child	Negative emotions	0.04	0.11*	0.08	0.18**	0.10**	0.08	0.12*	0.11*	0.08	0.09**
	Int: talk about the warning	0.10	0.07	0.09	0.06	0.09**	0.10	0.09	0.12*	0.10*	0.10**
	Int: engage in avoidance behaviors	0.15**	0.11*	0.17**	0.19**	0.15**	0.12*	0.14*	0.11*	0.16**	0.13**
	Int: hold back from smoking	0.07	0.03	0.07	0.08	0.07*	0.09	0.15*	0.03	0.11*	0.09**
	Int: quit	−0.05	−0.03	0.03	0.09	0.01	0.05	0.06	0.05	−0.03	0.03
L2 Pregnancy	Negative emotions	0.01	0.04	0.07	0.15**	0.07**	0.05	0.08	0.09	0.06	0.08**
	Int: to talk about the warning	0.03	0.02	0.11*	0.05	0.06*	0.08	0.07	0.05	0.05	0.07**
	Int: engage in avoidance behaviors	0.11*	0.08	0.15**	0.17**	0.13*	0.18**	0.07	0.13*	0.11*	0.12**
	Int: hold back from smoking	−0.02	−0.01	0.04	0.07	0.03	0.06	0.06	0.04	0.09	0.07*
	Int: quit	−0.08	0.00	0.06	0.04	0.01	−0.01	0.04	0.01	−0.02	0.01
L3 Nonsmoker	Negative emotions	0.03	0.09	0.09	0.10*	0.08**	0.04	0.10*	0.03	0.10*	0.07**
	Int: talk about the warning	0.05	0.07	0.04	0.01	0.04	0.09	0.08	0.05	0.01	0.06*
	Int: engage in avoidance behaviors	0.11*	0.07	0.17**	0.09*	0.12**	0.14**	0.15**	0.06	0.13*	0.12**
	Int: hold back from smoking	0.01	0.01	0.06	0.01	0.03	0.01	0.08	0.04	0.10*	0.06*
	Int: quit	0.00	0.01	0.00	0.06	0.02	0.02	0.00	−0.05	−0.06	−0.01
L4 Quit	Negative emotions	−0.04	0.05	0.00	0.05	0.02	0.01	0.04	−0.08	−0.01	−0.01
	Int: to talk about the warning	0.09	0.04	0.06	0.07	0.08**	0.07	0.05	0.12*	0.04	0.07*
	Int: engage in avoidance behaviors	0.04	−0.04	0.13*	0.08*	0.06*	0.01	0.03	0.01	0.02	0.02
	Int: hold back from smoking	0.02	−0.07	0.08	0.04	0.03	0.00	0.10	0.01	0.04	0.03
	Int: quit	0.00	0.02	0.00	0.03	0.03	0.00	0.05	0.01	−0.03	0.01
L5 Lung	Negative emotions	0.12*	0.19**	0.13**	0.22**	0.17**	0.20**	0.16**	0.18**	0.15**	0.18**
	Int: talk about the warning	0.10	0.06	0.05	0.11**	0.08**	0.16	0.12*	0.13**	0.13*	0.12**
	Int: engage in avoidance behaviors	0.15**	0.13*	0.23**	0.23**	0.19**	0.27**	0.25**	0.20**	0.21**	0.23**
	Int: hold back from smoking	0.08	0.10	0.12*	0.14**	0.11**	0.14**	0.16**	0.10	0.17**	0.14**
	Int: quit	0.00	0.03	0.02	0.11	0.04	0.06	0.02	0.00	−0.03	0.02
L6 Cancer	Negative emotions	0.18**	0.15**	0.19**	0.21**	0.19**	0.04	0.17**	0.13**	0.09	0.11**
	Int: to talk about the warning	0.08	0.10	0.20**	0.15**	0.14**	0.06	0.18**	0.19**	0.04	0.11**
	Int: engage in avoidance behaviors	0.24**	0.15**	0.29**	0.33**	0.26**	0.13**	0.28**	0.25**	0.23**	0.21**
	Int: hold back from smoking	0.12*	0.06	0.14**	0.11*	0.12**	0.07	0.21**	0.09	0.06	0.10**
	Int: quit	0.02	0.02	0.10	0.09	0.06	0.00	0.08	−0.04	−0.10**	−0.01
L7 Stroke	Negative emotions	0.12*	0.11*	0.07	0.16**	0.12*	0.02	0.10	0.07	0.11*	0.07**
	Int: talk about the warning	0.10	0.09	0.08	0.07	0.09**	0.11	0.06	0.07	0.11*	0.08**
	Int: engage in avoidance behaviors	0.20**	0.12*	0.22**	0.25**	0.20**	0.08	0.19**	0.10*	0.20**	0.14**
	Int: hold back from smoking	0.06	0.05	0.13*	0.11*	0.09**	0.11*	0.12*	0.06	0.14**	0.10**
	Int: quit	0.02	0.04	0.05	0.07	0.05	0.04	0.00	0.01	0.00	0.02
L8 Kill	Negative emotions	0.01	0.09	0.14**	0.14**	0.10**	0.09*	0.16**	0.06	0.11*	0.10**
	Int: to talk about the warning	0.03	0.08	0.06	0.01	0.05	0.09	0.11*	0.08	0.07	0.08**
	Int: engage in avoidance behaviors	0.20**	0.17**	0.31**	0.16**	0.22**	0.12*	0.15**	0.13*	0.21**	0.15**
	Int: hold back from smoking	0.01	0.09	0.14**	0.05	0.08**	0.09	0.21**	0.00	0.12**	0.10**
	Int: quit	−0.03	0.05	0.01	0.04	0.02	0.05	0.06	−0.01	−0.03	0.01
L9 Addiction	Negative emotions	0.03	0.09	0.02	0.12**	0.07**	0.00	0.15**	0.05	0.06	0.06*
	Int: talk about the warning	0.04	0.04	0.05	0.01	0.04	0.09	0.13*	0.14**	0.09	0.10**
	Int: engage in avoidance behaviors	0.11	0.07	0.18**	0.22**	0.14**	0.13**	0.17**	0.09	0.15**	0.12**
	Int: hold back from smoking	0.11*	0.00	0.12*	0.05	0.08**	0.05	0.16**	0.10	0.11*	0.10**
	Int: quit	−0.03	0.04	−0.02	0.04	0.01	−0.01	0.06	0.05	0.02	0.03

Note. AA = African American; Gen Pop = general population; GWL = graphic warning label; Hisp = Hispanic; Int = intentions; Low Edu = low education smokers. There are no significant differences between the effectiveness of the individual graphic warning labels relative to the text-only warnings for the six sub-populations of interest ([AA; 18–25, 26+], [Hisp; 18–25, 26+], and [Low Edu; 18–25, 26+]) and the effectiveness of the individual graphic warning labels relative to the text-only warnings for the age-matched general population on all eight outcomes. Only the four most effective outcomes from the combined GWLs analysis are shown here, plus intentions to quit. All analyses adjust for quitting contemplation, which was not randomly distributed across conditions. Given the oversampling, analyses for all current smokers (All) also adjust for race, education, sex, and age. Betas ≥ |0.10| are bolded to facilitate interpretation of similarly sized effects, since there were a range of sample sizes.

^aSample size for all current smokers is less than the sum of the four sub-populations (general population, African American, Hispanic, and low education smokers) because the low education smokers sub-population contains proportionally weighted sub-sets of the African American and Hispanic sub-populations.

*P < .05; **P < .01. Significant differences (P < .05) for individual labels were only noted if the overall treatment effect for the set of GWLs was significant at P < .10.